Download Environmental impact of pesticides

Environmental effects of pesticides.
An impression of recent scientific literature
August 2010.
Pesticides present the only group of chemicals that are purposely applied to the environment
with aim to suppress plant and animal pests and to protect agricultural and industrial
products. However, the majority of pesticides is not specifically targeting the pest only and
during their application they also affect non-target plants and animals. Repeated
application leads to loss of biodiversity. Many pesticides are not easily degradable, they
persist in soil, leach to groundwater and surface water and contaminate wide
environment. Depending on their chemical properties they can enter the organism,
bioaccumulate in food chains and consequently influence also human health. Overall,
intensive pesticide application results in several negative effects in the environment that
cannot be ignored.
First warning signals about pesticides danger
In 1962, Rachel Carson, an American courageous woman and scientist, wrote down her nature
observation and pointed out sudden dying of birds caused by indiscriminated spraying of pesticides
(DDT). Her book, Silent Spring, became a landmark. It changed the existing view on pesticides and
has stimulated public concern on pesticides and their impact on health and the environment. Silent
Spring facilitated the ban of the DDT in 1972 in the United States.
Silent spring book summary http://www.enotes.com/silent-spring
online Google book
http://books.google.com/books?id=HeR1l0V0r54C&dq=silent+spring&printsec=frontcover&source=bn
&hl=cs&ei=RnOYTI_FKjO4wavs_Bu&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=fal
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More research has been done and several dangerous and persistent organic pesticides like Dieldrin,
Endosulfan and Lindane have been banned or restricted since that time.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, a global treaty entered in force
in May 2004, aims to eliminate the production and use of twelve priority POPs including
organochlorine pesticides such as aldrin, dieldrin, DDT and metabolites, endrin, heptachlor,
chlordane, mirex and toxaphene. In August 2010,  and  hexachlorocyclohexane, lindane,
chlordecone and pentachlorobenzene were added.
Stockholm Convention http://chm.pops.int/default.aspx
These obsolete pesticides are characterised by a high persistence in the environment (e.g. half life
for DDT in soil range form 22 to 30 years, Toxaphene up to 14 years, Mirex about 12 years, Dieldrin
up to 7 years, Chlordecone up to 30 years), low water solubility and thus potential to accumulate in
fatty tissue of living organisms including humans and toxicity to both human and wildlife. Due to
intensive releases to the environment in past several decades, their chemical properties and tendency
to long-range transboundary atmospheric transport, they are now widely distributed and are found
around a globe. Significant levels are detected in regions where persistent pesticides have never been
used such as in polar regions, in tissues of fishes, birds and bears.
1
An example of intensive pesticides application that results in a serious environmental and health
impact is given below.
Martinique pesticide disaster
Two French Caribbean islands, Martinique and Guadeloupe, are heavily contaminated by pesticide
chlordecone after several decades of its spraying on bananas plantations. Initially, the use led to
higher crop yields but each season more chlordecone was required to achieve the same results. As a
consequence, this tropical paradise with about 800,000 inhabitants now faces an environmental
disaster with far-reaching ecological, economical and social impacts.
Chlordecone, persistent and toxic compound, was banned in France's Caribbean territories in 1993,
but it was used illegally, often sprayed by aeroplanes, up to 2002. In 2003, local authorities restricted
cultivation of crops because of the high soil contamination. Rivers, drinking water as well as food chain
has been contaminated for decades. Concentrations detected in fishes are among the highest ever
reported in the literature and also other wildlife organisms are contaminated (Bocquené and Franco
20051; Coat et al., 20062).
Health consequences for island’s population are warning as well. The islands have one of the highest
prostate cancer rates in the world. Half the men of Martinique and Guadeloupe were likely to develop
prostate cancer. The rate of congenital malformation and birth defects in children is increasing.
News articles
http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article2485340.ece
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/health-disaster-in-french-caribbean-linked-to-pesticides402816.html
Research article (full text):
1 http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2005/publication-879.pdf
2 http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2006/publication-1662.pdf
The problem of pesticide usage is not over now in many countries the old persistent, bioaccumulative
pesticides have been banned. A lot of new substances have been developed and used in large
quantities. For many of these substances today we still do not have sufficient amount of knowledge
about their possible risks and adverse effects on the environment and human. Several of them appear
to have a bad environmental profile.
Environmental effects of pesticides, in different compartiments.
1. Soil contamination
Pesticides enter the soil via spray drift during foliage treatment, wash-off from treated foliage, release
from granulates or from treated seeds in soil. Some pesticides such as soil fumigants and
nematocides are applied directly into soil to control pests and plant diseases presented in soil.
The transport, persistence or degradation of pesticides in soil depend on their chemical properties as
well as physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. All these factors affect sorption/
desorption, volatilisation, degradation, uptake by plants, run-off, and leaching of pesticides.

Persistent organochlorine pesticides (OC) in soils
Persistence of pesticides in soil can vary from few hours to many years in case of OC pesticides.
Despite OC pesticides were banned or restricted in many countries, they are still detecting in
soils (Shegunova et al., 20071; Toan et al., 20072; Li et al., 20083; Hildebrandt et al., 20094; Jiang
et al., 20095; Ferencz and Balog 20106).
1
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VB5-4M340F5-3/2/85b08c0e669c60912dfce4c6686f8fb3
: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17476441
3 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V74-4PNF9RM-3/2/2334f0ff319662eaaa42b5228e04304d
4 abstract : http://www.springerlink.com/content/63943n2118744115/
2 abstract
2
5 full
6
text: http://www.sklog.labs.gov.cn/atticle/b09/B09037.pdf
full text : http://www.ubm.ro/sites/CJEES/upload/2010_1/Ferencz_Balog.pdf
Sorption is the most important interaction between soil and pesticides and limits degradation as well
as transport in soil. Pesticides bound to soil organic matter or clay particles are less mobile, bio
available but also less accessible to microbial degradation and thus more persistent.

Soil organic matter is the most important factor influencing sorption and leaching of pesticides in
soil. Addition of organic matter to soil can enhance sorption and reduce risk to water
pollution. It has been demonstrated that amount and composition of organic matter had large
impact on pesticides sorption. For example soil rich on humus content are more chemically
reactive with pesticides than nonhumified soil (Farenhorst 2006).
Article full text: https://www.soils.org/publications/sssaj/articles/70/3/1005
High yield agriculture, as it is widely practised in Europa, depletes soil organic matter and will reduce
sorption.
Fast sorption usually occurs in short time after pesticide application. With time sorption is much
slower. However, it has been observed for many pesticides that increasing time, repeated application
could increase their sorption and formation of bound, non-extractable residues.

Although bound residues are considered of low significance because they are inactive and
nonavailable, it has been detected that they can release in some time. Change in soil pH or
addition of nitrate fertilizers can induced a release of this residues. There exist also evidences that
some organisms, e.g. plants and earthworms, can uptake and remobilise old tightly bound
residues (Gevao et al., 2000).
Abstract: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es000144d

An overview of bound residues, their formation and environmental impact studies is made by
Barraclough et al. (2005)1 and Navarro et al., (2007)2; a review of mobility and degradation of
pesticides in soil and risk to groundwater pollution studies by Arias-Estévez et al., (2008)3.
1
full text http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/afs/Soil_Science/MSSS/links/pdfs/bound%20residues.pdf
abstract and full text http://www.scientificcommons.org/23365565
3 abstract and full text http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf0635356
2

A review is published showing that about 50 % of plant protection products from EU
registration dossiers exhibit a low proportion (up to 30% of initial amount) of non-extractable
residues and about 12 % proportion exceeding 70%. The largest proportion of bound residues
was found for carbamates, and in particular, for dithiocarbamates. In this study authors further
summarized and discussed factors that affect formation of bound residues, chemical properties as
well as soil and environmental condition (Barriuso et al., 2008).
Abstract http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es7021736
Full text http://pfmodels.org/downloads/ID024.pdf
2. Water contamination
Pesticides can get into water via drift during pesticide spraying, by runoff from treated area, leaching
through the soil. In some cases pesticides can be applied directly onto water surface e.g. for
control of mosquitoes. Water contamination depends mainly on nature of pesticides (water solubility,
hydrophobicity), soil properties, weather conditions, landscape and also on the distance from an
application site to a water source. Rapid transport to groundwater may be caused by heavy rainfall
shortly after application of the pesticide to wet soils.
3

During 90ies, herbicide Atrazine and Endosulphan were found most often in surface waters in the
USA and Australia due to their widespread use. Other pesticides detected included Pronofos,
Dimethoate, Chlordane, Diuron, Prometryn and Fluometuron (Cooper 1996).

More recent studies also reported presence of pesticides in surface water and groundwater close
to agriculture lands over the world (Cerejeira et al., 20031; Konstantinou et al., 20062; Gilliom
20073; Woudneh et al., 20094; Añasco et al., 20105). In general, the compounds most frequently
detected were currently used pesticides (herbicides Atrazine, Simazine, Alachlor, Metolachlor
and Trifluralin, insecticides Diazinon, Parathion methyl, and organochlorine compounds due to
their long persistance (lindane, endosulfan, aldrin, and other organochlorine pesticides).
1
full text http://www.topps-life.org/upl/29/default/doc/WaterResearch2003.pdf
abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VB5-4HB4DK81/2/f5daeb87ac7426b55fc460c99afccdc5
3 abstract and full text http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1940079/
4 https://www.crops.org/publications/jeq/abstracts/38/3/940
5 abstract http://www.springerlink.com/content/u231132583921211/
2
The geographic and seasonal distribution of pesticide occurrence follows patterns in land use and
pesticide use. Streams and rivers were frequently more polluted that groundwaters and more
near the areas with substantial agricultural and/or urban land use. Pesticides usually occurred in
mixture of multiple compounds, even if individual pesticide were detected bellow limits. This
potentially can lead to underestimation of toxicity when assessments are based on individual
compounds.

High levels of pesticides chlordecone were detected in coastline, rivers, sediments and
groundwater in the Caribbean island of Martinique due to its massive application on bananas
plantations (Bocquené and Franco 2005).
Full text http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2005/publication-879.pdf
3. Effects on organisms
Soil organisms and processes
Soil microorganisms play a key role in soil. They are essential for maintenance of soil structure,
transformation and mineralization of organic matter, making nutrients available for plants. Soil
microorganisms are also able to metabolise and degrade a lot of pollutants and pesticides and thus
are of great concern for using in biotechnology. On the other hand, microbial degradation can lead to
formation of more toxic and persistent metabolites. Although soil microbial population are
characterized by fast flexibility and adaptability to changed environmental condition, the application of
pesticides (especially long-term) can cause significant irreversible changes in their population.
Inhibition of species, which provide key process, can have a significant impact on function of whole
terrestrial ecosystem.

Fungicides were found to be toxic to soil fungi and actinomycetes and caused changes in
microbial community structure (Liebich et al., 20034; Pal et al., 20055).
4
abstract http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/etc.5620220416/abstract
abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V74-4FY3NYW5/2/6d1b3ecb9bae76e64669c00593c4e7b8
5

Other bacterial species, such as nitrification bacteria, are very sensitive to pesticides influence.
Inhibition of nitrification was proved by sulphonylurea herbicides (Gigliotti and Allievi 2001 1).
Chlorothalonil and dinitrophenyl fungicides such as Mancozeb, Maneb or Zineb have also been
shown toxic to nitrification and denitrification bacterial processes (Kinney et al., 2005 6; Lang and
Cai 20097).
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6
7
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full text http://infolib.hua.edu.vn/Fulltext/ChuyenDe2009/CD239/9.pdf
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B8CX4-4W3HPK7-9/2/78deb68a2ac587d15fe64832bbe69f07
A ew studies show that some organochlorine pesticides suppress symbiotic nitrogen fixation
resulting in lower crop yields. Authors found out that pesticides Pentachlorphenol, DDT and Methyl
parathion at levels found in farm soils interfered signalling from leguminous plant such as alfalfa,
peas, and soybeans to symbiotic soil bacteria. This effect, loosely comparable to endocrine
disruption effects of pesticides in human and animals, significantly disrupt N 2 fixation. As
consequence increased dependence on synthetic nitrogenous fertilizer, reduced soil
fertility, and unsustainable long-term crop yields occur. The observations also may explain a
trend in the past 40 years toward stagnant crop yields despite record high use of pesticides and
synthetic fertilizers worldwide (Fox et al., 20078; Potera 20079).
8 Full
text http://www.pnas.org/content/104/24/10282.full
of article http://ehp03.niehs.nih.gov/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.115-a579a
9 Summary

Some pesticides (Benomyl, Dimethoate) can also negatively affected symbiotic mycorrhizal
fungi, which facilitate plant nutrient uptake (Menendez et al., 1999 10; Chiocchio et al., 200011).
Moreover, agricultural practises such us tillage, crop rotation, fertilization, pesticide application,
irrigation can also reduce root colonisation by myccorhizal fungi (Jansa et al., 2006 12).
10
full text http://revistes.iec.cat/revistes/index.php/IM/article/viewFile/6183/5723
full text http://revistes.iec.cat/index.php/IM/article/viewFile/6084/5620
12 abstract http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/266/1/89
11
Soil invertebrates
Nematodes, springtails, mites and further micro-arthropods, earthworms, spiders, insects and all these
small organisms make up the soil food web and enable decomposition of organic compounds such
as leaves, manure, plant residues and they also prey on crop pests. Soil organisms enhance soil
aggregation and porosity and thus increasing infiltration and reducing runoff.
Earthworms represent the greatest part of biomass of terrestrial invertebrates (>80 %) and play an
important role in soil ecosystem. They are used as bioindicator of soil contamination providing an early
warning of decline in soil quality. They serve as model organisms in toxicity testing. Earthworms are
characterized by high ability to cumulate a lot of pollutants from soil in their tissues, thus they are used
for studying of bioaccumulation potential of chemicals.

A recent review of pesticides effects on earthworms showed on negative effects on growth and
reproduction by many pesticides (Shahla and D'Souza 2010).
Full text http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/aess/2010/678360.pdf

A microcosm study conducted in orchards in the South Africa indicated adverse effects of
spraying by pesticides (Chlorpyrifos and Azinphos methyl) on earthworm’s biomass and
cholinesterase activity. Authors concluded that earthworms were detrimentally affected by the
pesticides due to chronic and intermittent exposure (Reinecke and Reinecke 2007).
Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6WDM-4HNSPPH2/2/cd84b9c6fb66ade36e649fc6ded5e146

A laboratory experiment that reproduced vineyard conditions in France showed that mixture of
insecticides and/or fungicides at different environmental concentrations caused a neurotoxic
effect in earthworms. After a long period of exposure or high concentrations, earthworms were
physiologically damaged and could not cope with the high toxicity (Schreck et al., 2008).
Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6V74-4S2VRH32/2/cd8ebbe1b59c95422551c785754434fc
5

Glyphosate, nonselective herbicide, and chlorpyrifos, insecticide, belong to the most worldwide
used pesticides, especially on transgenic resistant crops. An integrated study on a Roundoup
resistant soya field in Argentina showed deleterious effect of these pesticides on
earthworm population. Earthworms avoided soil with glyphosate, their feeding activity and
viability were reduced. Glyphosate and chlorpyrifos caused also several adverse effects at cellular
level (DNA damage) that indicated physiological stress. Author concluded that the effects
observed on the reproduction and avoidance caused by glyphosate could contribute to earthworm
decrease, with the subsequent loss of their beneficial functions (Casabé et al., 2007).
Abstract http://www.springerlink.com/content/u7l47j47h6323447/
Full text http://www.glifocidio.org/docs/soya/so2.pdf
Other soil species are also often affected by pesticides application and non-target soil community
structure can be strongly affected.

As reported in another study, glyphosate affected predatory arthropods (spiders and ground
beetle) in agricultural field, caused behavioural changes and influenced long-term surviving even
in residual exposure. These Results also suggest that herbicides can affect arthropod community
dynamics separate from their impact on the plant community and may influence biological control
in agroecosystems (Evans et al., 2010).
Abstract http://www.springerlink.com/content/v418510x6g572126/

Decrease in number of spiders and diversity, and species richness of Collembolan after
application of insecticide chlorpyrifos has been reported on grassland pasture in UK (Fountain et
al., 2007).
Full text http://www.unemat.br/prppg/ppgca/docs/disciplina/manejo/3.pdf

The negative impact of pesticides spraying on invertebrate communities might not be seen
instantly but may produce detrimental effects afterwards as was showed by Amalin et al., 2009.
Authors studied impact of chemical treatment on arthopod community in the agriculture area near
Everglades Nation Park, USA. Overall, more arthropod taxa were present in the non-sprayed field,
with a higher number of predators such as coccinelles, than on field treated by broad-spectrum
herbicides and insecticides eleven times during two years (Amalin et al., 2009).
Abstract and full text http://ddr.nal.usda.gov/dspace/handle/10113/41568

In the review article from 2010 authors investigated the impact of pesticide restriction in
arable crop edges on naturally occurring terrestrial invertebrates. Authors conclude that the
restriction of herbicides in crop edges has a positive influence on arthropod populations,
especially for chick-food insects, Heteroptera and other herbivores. Predatory insects may
be affected indirectly by the exclusion of herbicides alone, or as a result of changes in their prey
availability (Frampton and Dorne 2007).
Abstract http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01277.x/abstract
Other non-target species

Effect of pesticides on bees are closely watched because their crop pollination. However, little is
known about the impacts of pesticides on wild pollinators in the field. In recent study conducted in
Italian agricultural area, authors monitored species richness of wild bees, bumblebees and
butterflies were sampled after pesticides application. They detected decline of wild bees after
repeated application of insecticide fenitrothion. Lower bumblebee and butterfly species
richness was found in the more intensively farmed basin with higher pesticide loads (Brittain et al.,
2010).
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Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B7GVS-4Y7P9VS1/2/07ffb70c93fcc9330bac5aceec257595

Several articles reported negative effects of pesticides and intensive agriculture on butterflies
populations (Longley and Sotherton 19971; White and Kerr 20072; Adamski et al., 20093), and
showed positive impact of organic farming (Saarinen 2002 4; Feber et al., 20075).
1
abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T3Y-3W3FGBH1/2/9499b086862287a0d6e1e3d9d7d3c757
2 abstract http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00298.x/abstract
3 abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6WP8-4W211YC2/2/4952cd145d9ce7b1043b694ef7a3c31a
4 abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T3Y-4606S0V5/2/6409768b726fd0e5370b5637dc88fb14
5 abstract http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2007.00296.x/abstract
Impact of pesticides on insect is determined by the timing of application because susceptibility to
exposure differs between species and at different life stages. Therefore, unconsidered agricultural
practises can harm butterfly populations.

It has been shown that using herbicides to control of invasive plants can significantly reduce
survival, wing and pupa weight of butterfly at treated areas. Author highlighted the importance
of careful consideration in the use of herbicides in habitats harboring at-risk butterfly populations.
Reduction of adverse effect may be reached by applications in late summer and early fall, post
flight season and during larval diapause (Russell and Schultz 2009).
Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B7GVS-4Y7P9VS1/2/07ffb70c93fcc9330bac5aceec257595
Water organisms – invertebrates, amphibians, fishes
Pesticides can enter fresh water streams directly via spray drift or indirectly via surface runoff or drain
flow. Many pesticides are toxic to freshwater organisms. Acute and chronic effects are derived from
standart toxicity tests. Within the ecological context, sublethal effects of toxic contaminants are very
important. For example, downstream drift of stream macroinvertebrates in common reaction to various
types of disturbance, including chemical contamination and may result in significant changes of
structure of lotic communities.

Downstream drift was shown for several pesticides such as pyrethroid, neonicotinoid,
organochlorine, organophosphate insecticides or lampricides. Neurotoxic insecticides exhibited
the strongest drift-initiating effects on stream-dwelling insects and crustaceans. Moreover, it was
detected that macroinvertebrate drift can be induced even by short-term pulse exposures
(within 2 hours) at field-relevant concentrations (already 7–22 times lower than the respective
acute LC50 values) (Beketov and Liess 2008).
Abstract http://www.springerlink.com/content/a021gn0237828n81/abstract/

A large-scale investigation of pesticides effects on stream macroinvertebrate community
structure was conducted in France and Finnland. Authors proved that pesticides stress was
associated with a decrease in the relative abundance and number of sensitive species and
suggested that effects may also occur below levels that are commonly thought to be
protective. They also found out that undisturbed upstream reaches improve the quality of
impaired downstream reaches. This finding could be use in constitute a valuable measure for
future risk mitigation of agricultural practices (Schäfer et al., 2007).
Full text http://www.systemecology.eu/Publications/Field_Effects_files/PesticideEffFrFi.pdf
7
In ecotoxicologial risk assessment of pesticides, attention is also focused on the ability of treated
aquatic ecosystems to recover. After pesticide application structural and functional changes in
ecosystem were monitored. Whereas some species can be reduced, other may profit from lower
predation and food competition. The time needed for recovery depends on biotic factor such as
presence of dormant forms, life cycle characteristics, landscape as well as on the season when
exposure occur.

It has been detected, isolated ecosystems were more susceptible to damage and community
structure changed to lower biodiversity states. Recovery in these ecosystems depends on the
availability of immigrating organisms (Caquet et al., 20071; Hanson et al., 20072). Long-living
species might not recover until very long time (7 months of experiment) (Beketov et al., 20083).
1
Full text http://nrg.ncl.ac.uk/ecoserv/assets/pdf/caquet07.pdf
full text http://www.ceg.ncl.ac.uk/ecoserv/assets/pdf/hanson07.pdf
3 Full text http://www.famu.org/mayfly/pubs/pub_b/pubbeketovm2008p96.pdf
2

Adoption of no-spray buffer zones were shown as an effective mitigation measure that
reduced impact of pesticide application on bentic macroinvertebrates in study conducted in UK
(Maltby and Hills 2008).
Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VB5-4SK0C4X2/2/65d1df9cb9436d94e1ed127fad970f75
Several studies reported toxicity of pesticides on aquatic vertebrates – amphibians and fishes

For example, Carbaryl has been found toxic for several amphibian species, additional
combination with predatory stress caused higher mortality (Relyea 20031). Also herbicide
Roundup, glyphosate, caused high mortality of tadpoles and juvenile frogs in a outdoor
mesocosms study (Relyea 2005b2).
1
2

abstract http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/02-5298
astract http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/04-1291
Impact of Malathion a broad spectrum insecticide, on aquatic ecosystem has been
demonstrated. Malathion is the most commonly applied insecticide around the world and can be
legally directly sprayed over aquatic habitats to control the mosquitoes. This study showed
that relatively small concentration of malathion caused direct and also indirect effect on aquatic
food web. Changes in plankton and periphyton abundance and composition consequently
affected growing of frog tadpoles and reduced predation rates on amphibians (Relyea and
Hoverman 20083). Moreover, repeated low dose application caused large impact than single
exposure (Relyea and Diecks 20084). Similar results were observed also for insecticides carbaryl
and herbicides glyphosate and 2,4-D (Relyea 2005a5; Boone et al., 20076).
3
full text http://www.pitt.edu/~biology/Dept/pdf/3155.pdf
text
http://training.fws.gov/EC/Resources/pesticides/Limitations%20and%20Uncertainty/Relyea%20and%20Dieck
s%202008%20-%20pesticide%20induced%20trophic%20cascades.pdf
5 full text http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/03-5342
6 http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/10510761%282007%29017%5B0291%3AMSIACE%5D2.0.CO%3B2
4 full
These results pointed out that although single species laboratory experiments are important starting
point the full understanding of possible effects (direct and indirect) could only be observed when
organisms are embedded within a natural community. All these evidences might contribute to
explanation of a global decline in amphibian diversity.
Mixture of pesticides are commonly detected in the environment and exposition to organisms can be
more dangerous than individual effect.

A study published in Environmental Health Perspectives gave evidence of synergistic and
additional effects of pesticide mixture. Author investigated in vivo effects of combination of
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common used organophosphate and carbamate pesticides on acetylcholin enzyme inhibition in
the brains of juvenile coho salmon. All tested pesticides resulted in sublethal inhibition effects,
exposures to binary mixtures of OP and CB pesticides produced significant additive or synergistic
effect and lower lethal concentration. Synergistic effect was greater at higher exposure
concentrations (Laetz et al., 2008).
Abstract and full text http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2661902/
Birds
Decline of farmland bird species has been reported over several past decades and often attributed
to changes in farming practises, such as increase agrochemical inputs, loss of mixture farming or
unfarmed structures. Besides lethal and sub lethal effects of pesticides on birds, concern has recently
focused on the indirect effects. These effects act mainly via reduction of food supplies (weeds,
invertebrates), especially during breeding or winter seasons. As consequence insecticide and
herbicide application can lead to reduction of chick survival and bird population. Time of
pesticides application plays also important role in availability of food.
Several practises (generally Integrated crop management techniques) can be used to minimize
unwanted effects of pesticides on farmland birds, such as use of selective pesticides, avoiding
spraying in during breeding season and when crops and weeds are in flower, minimise spray drift or
creation of headlands.

Evidences of this important indirect effect of pesticides has been reported e.g. by Moreby and
Southway 19991; Boatman et al., 20042; Taylor et al., 20063.
1
abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T3Y-3W19RNV8/2/e22797a7eb42e4d3620084fafabd44c6
2 full text http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T3Y-3W19RNV8/2/e22797a7eb42e4d3620084fafabd44c6
3 full text http://infolib.hua.edu.vn/Fulltext/ChuyenDe2009/CD251/52.pdf
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A recent review about this topic and possible mitigation measure were published by Royal
Society for the Protection of Birds in UK (Bright et al., 2008).
Report full text http://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/projects/details/192699-a-review-of-indirect-effects-ofpesticides-on-birds-and-mitigating-landmanagement-practices
4. Effects of pesticides and farming practises on biodiversity
Intensive pesticides and fertilizers usage, loss of natural and semi-natural habitats and decreased
habitat heterogeneity and all other aspects of agricultural intensification have undoubted impact on
biodiversity decline during last years.
Intensive agriculture

A current Europe-wide survey in eight West and East European countries brought alarming
evidence of negative effects of agricultural intensification on wild plants, carabid and bird
species diversity. Authors demonstrated that, despite decades of European policy to ban harmful
pesticides, pesticides are still having disastrous consequences for biodiversity on European
farmland. Insecticides also reduced the biological control potential. They conclude that if
biodiversity is to be restored in Europe, there must be a Europe-wide shift towards farming
with minimal use of pesticides over large areas (Geiger et al., 2010).
Abstract and full text:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B7GVS-4Y71D543&_user=10&_coverDate=03%2F31%2F2010&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_origin=search&_sort=d&
_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1476968002&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_versi
on=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=7a1b201c3bdc79799ca545dd2cc061d7&searchtype=a
9

Taking a landscape in Great Britain as an example, it has been showed that impact of
agriculture intensification on biodiversity differs among agricultural land use and depends on
specific agricultural pressure like land use changes, land cover or crop management. Authors
found out that, as result of eutrohication and N surplus, vegetation diversity surrounding
cropped land shifted to a composition typical for more fertile conditions. However, species
richness of plants and breeding birds were more affected by broad habitat diversity (Firbank et
al., 2008).
The pressures of agricultural changes may be reduced by:
- minimizing loss of large habitats,
- minimizing permanent loss of agricultural land,
- maintaining habitat diversity in agricultural landscapes in order to provide ecosystem services,
- minimizing pollution from nutrients and pesticides from the crops themselves.
Abstract and full text http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1492/777.full

A recent study, conducted in agriculture area in Netherlands, estimated impact of insecticides,
herbicides and fungicides drift on terrestrial biodiversity outside treated area. Researches
demonstrated that under scenarios based on wider buffer zones and ‘best available practise‘
the pesticide impact could be cut to zero. This study suggests that increasing unsprayed buffer
zones around crops is critical to the success of any new strategy to prevent the harmful impact of
pesticides (de Jong et al., 2008).
Abstract http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6WJ7-4N08X5X1/2/162e07fb0b50b6437226f48b9b70372f
EU press release http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/105na1.pdf
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