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DISILLUSIONING THE PROSECUTION:
THE UNFULFILLED PROMISE OF
SYNDROME EVIDENCE
NINA GUPTA*
I
INTRODUCTION
From a quick scan of the news and television crime shows in recent years, it
is apparent that mental conditions recognized by a distinct pattern of behavior,
1
2
known as “syndromes,” have entered the courtroom setting. The medical
community has recognized most of these syndromes for decades. For example,
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and rape-trauma syndrome (RTS) are
3
generally accepted syndromes in the field of medicine. Despite this general
acceptance, evidence that an individual suffers from PTSD or RTS is seldom
4
used in the courtroom, and when it is used, courts limit its admissibility. Thus,
Copyright © 2014 by Nina Gupta.
This article is also available at http://lcp.law.duke.edu/.
* J.D. Candidate, 2014. Duke University School of Law. Notes & Research Editor of Law and
Contemporary Problems Volume 77. I would like to thank Professor Lisa Griffin for her excellent
advice on this topic and guidance with this note.
1. Charles Bleil, Evidence of Syndromes: No Need for a Better “Mousetrap,” 32 S. TEX. L. REV.
37, 38 (1990).
2. David McCord, Syndromes, Profiles, and Other Mental Exotica: A New Approach to the
Admissibility of Nontraditional Psychological Evidence in Criminal Cases, 66 OR. L. REV. 19, 24 (1987)
(“Before the mid-1970s, cases discussing the admissibility of nontraditional psychological evidence
were few and far between. During the last decade, however, a flood of nontraditional psychological
evidence has inundated the courts in criminal cases. Several of these types of evidence are known as
‘syndromes.’”).
3. The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM), an authoritative manual on psychiatric disorders, includes post-traumatic stress disorder, and
the most recent edition, DSM-5, categorizes sexual assault as an event that can lead to post-traumatic
stress disorder. AM. PSYCHIATRIC ASS’N, POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (2013) [hereinafter
AM. PSYCHIATRIC ASS’N, POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER], available at http://www.dsm5.org/
Documents/PTSD%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf. Also, literature demonstrates the acceptance of rape-trauma
syndrome in the medical community. See State v. Allewalt, 517 A.2d 741, 754 (Md. 1986) (citing THE
RAPE CRISIS INTERVENTION HANDBOOK124–26 (Sharon L. McCombie ed., 1980)); ANN W. BURGESS
& LYNDA L. HOLMSTROM, RAPE: CRISIS AND RECOVERY 35-47 (1979); ANN WOLBERT BURGESS &
LYNDA LYTLE HOLMSTROM, RAPE: VICTIMS OF CRISIS 37–50 (1974); ELAINE HILBERMAN, THE
RAPE VICTIM 36 (1976); HAROLD I. KAPLAN, ALFRED M. FREEDMAN & BENJAMIN J. SADOCK,
COMPREHENSIVE TEXTBOOK OF PSYCHIATRY § 21.1d, at 1519, § 24.15, at 1804–05 (3d ed. 1980);
SEDELLE KATZ & MARY ANN MAZUR, UNDERSTANDING THE RAPE VICTIM: A SYNTHESIS OF
RESEARCH FINDINGS 215–31 (1979).
4. See Bleil, supra note 1, at 63 (discussing the general unwillingness of courts to accept a liberal
approach toward the admissibility of syndrome evidence in the form of expert testimony).
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syndrome evidence is an area of the law that lags behind science.
Courts differ greatly in their approaches to the admissibility of syndrome
7
evidence. Admissibility varies with the purpose for which the evidence is
offered; defensive use of syndrome evidence is more widely accepted than
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offensive use, which is rare. In this note, I seek to delineate the mechanics of
the common rule that syndrome evidence may be allowed defensively but
9
generally may not be admitted offensively.
I begin by defining syndrome evidence, describing the various judicial
approaches to analyzing its admissibility, and suggesting a coherent and uniform
way to analyze its admissibility. Then, I will compare offensive and defensive
use of syndrome evidence in the courtroom. I will focus largely on evidence of
PTSD and RTS in sexual-assault cases. Finally, I will argue that the use of
syndrome evidence in the courtroom, particularly in sexual-assault cases, often
has a counterintuitive effect: instead of fervently protecting victims of sexual
assault the way one might expect, syndrome evidence adds an additional
dimension of uncertainty to sexual-assault cases because of the way in which
courts have limited its use. Moreover, the use of syndrome evidence in the
courtroom raises the possibility that defendants may use syndrome evidence
against victims.
II
DEVELOPMENT OF SYNDROME EVIDENCE
A. Syndrome Evidence Defined
Syndrome evidence generally appears as expert testimony in the form of a
10
qualified mental-health professional’s opinion. The Supreme Court of
Vermont has defined syndrome evidence as “evidence elicited from an expert
that a person is a member of a class of persons who share a common physical,
emotional, or mental condition. The condition must be one that is generally
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recognized in the field.” Therefore, syndrome evidence is usually considered a
5. Syndrome evidence has been defined as “a type of proof designed to educate jurors about
typical human behavior in response to specified conditions.” Betsy J. Grey, Neuroscience, PTSD, and
Sentencing Mitigation, 34 CARDOZO L. REV. 53, 96 n.243 (2012).
6. See id. at 62–63 (discussing doubts about the validity of evidence of post-traumatic stress
disorder and the difficulties of advancing post-traumatic stress disorder as a defense or mitigating
factor, even though the syndrome has gained acceptance in the scientific community and general
populace).
7. Bleil, supra note 1, at 38.
8. Id. at 63–64; see Holly Hogan, The False Dichotomy of Rape trauma syndrome, 12 CARDOZO
J.L. & GENDER 529, 535 (2006) (finding that offensive use of rape-trauma syndrome testimony is
atypical).
9. Hogan, supra note 8, at 538 (discussing courts’ reluctance to admit offensive testimony of rapetrauma syndrome).
10. Bleil, supra note 1, at 38.
11. State v. Kinney, 762 A.2d 833 (Vt. 2000) (quoting State v. Gokey, 574 A.2d 766, 768–70 (Vt.
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type of expertise.
In this note I will analyze evidence from two syndromes: post-traumatic
stress disorder and rape-trauma syndrome. Both syndromes have been
13
recognized by the medical community and used in the courtroom.
1. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
14
PTSD is an anxiety disorder that is triggered by a stressor. PTSD has been
listed in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical
15
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) since 1980. Symptoms of PTSD include
intrusive memories, flashbacks, sleep disturbance, social dysfunction, numbing
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of emotions, hypervigilance, and avoidance of traumatic stimuli. The stressor is
generally a triggering event, such as a sexual assault, abuse assault, car crash, or
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combat situation. The person’s response to the stressor consists of “intense
18
fear, helplessness, or horror.” “Although PTSD was originally conceived to
address the trauma experienced by combat veterans, it was soon recognized that
the diagnosis had broad applications to all types of trauma, including
19
‘interpersonal stressors’ such as rape, sexual abuse, and physical battering.”
2. Rape-Trauma Syndrome
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RTS is a type of post-traumatic stress disorder that consists of “post-rape
21
physical and emotional traits that many rape victims share.” In 1974 doctors
Ann Burgess and Linda Holmstrom first brought RTS to the attention of the
medical community, and, later, prosecutors, with their two-year study of
22
forcible-rape victims. They defined RTS as “the acute phase and long-term
1990)).
12. See McCord, supra note 2, at 31 (describing a shift towards using expert testimony as syndrome
evidence).
13. Dr. Brett C. Trowbridge, The Admissibility of Expert Testimony in Washington on Post
Traumatic Stress Disorder and Related Trauma Syndromes: Avoiding the Battle of the Experts by
Restoring the Use of Objective Psychological Testimony in the Courtroom, 27 SEATTLE U. L. REV. 453,
458–64 (2003).
14. Grey, supra note 5, at 58.
15. Id. at 58–59 (“Clinicians welcomed the introduction of PTSD into the DSM, but a number of
critics argued that it should not be recognized as a diagnosis, citing problems with validity, reliability,
and ubiquity, among others.”). Id. at 59. Heavy lobbying by Vietnam veterans’ groups and the women’s
movement helped to bring attention to PTSD. Id.
16. Id. at 58.
17. Id. at 61 (citing AM. PSYCHIATRIC ASS’N, DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF
MENTAL DISORDERS 463–64 (4th ed., text rev. 2000)).
18. AM. PSYCHIATRIC ASS’N, DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS
463 (4th ed., text rev. 2000).
19. Trowbridge, supra note 13, at 459.
20. Kenneth Winchester Gaines, Rape trauma syndrome: Toward Proper Use in the Criminal Trial
Context, 20 AM. J. TRIAL ADVOC. 227, 228 (1997).
21. Hogan, supra note 8, at 530.
22. Ann Wolbert Burgess & Linda Lytle Holmstrom, Rape trauma syndrome, 131 AM. J.
PSYCHIATRY 981 (1974); Gaines, supra note 20, at 228–29.
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reorganization process that occurs as a result of forcible rape or attempted
forcible rape. This syndrome of behavioral, somatic, and psychological reactions
23
is an acute stress reaction to a life-threatening situation.” The victim goes
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through the acute phase immediately after the incident. Reactions vary during
this phase; some victims will express fear and anger, while others will appear
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calm and subdued. Victims will also experience a number of physical reactions
26
during the acute phase, such as headaches, disturbed sleep, and fatigue. During
the long-term reorganizational phase, the victim may decide to make a major
27
change in her life. This phase may also be characterized by nightmares or
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phobias relating to the circumstances of the rape.
29
Rape-trauma syndrome includes many counterintuitive victim behaviors.
For example, some expect a victim to be hysterical after a rape and may assume
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that a rape did not occur if a victim is calm and subdued after the incident.
31
One might also expect a victim to report a rape immediately after it occurs.
Studies indicate, however, that victims with rape-trauma syndrome will often
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refuse to acknowledge they have been raped. Similarly, although one might
expect the victim of a traumatic experience to recall the event in vivid detail,
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victims may not have a clear memory of the rape. Thus, rape-trauma syndrome
helps to explain a victim’s counterintuitive behavior that might otherwise lead a
jury to believe that a victim was not raped.
The DSM does not mention rape-trauma syndrome or other common
syndromes such as battered person syndrome or child abuse syndrome, but it
does include sexual assault as a traumatic event that can lead to post-traumatic
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stress disorder. Although RTS initially developed as a tool intended to aid in
diagnosis and treatment of psychiatric patients, prosecutors have attempted to
use RTS to establish causation between a rape and specific symptoms that rape
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victims exhibit. One commentator argues, “[C]onsidering the difficulties
involved in rape prosecutions, RTS . . . has great appeal as an evidentiary
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tool.” Most states allow at least some expert testimony about the psychological
23. Burgess & Holmstrom, supra note 22, at 982.
24. People v. Taylor, 552 N.E.2d 131, 134 (N.Y. 1990) (citing Burgess & Holmstrom, supra note
22, at 982).
25. Id.
26. Id.
27. Id.
28. Id.
29. Hogan, supra note 8, at 532.
30. Id.
31. Id.
32. Id. (citing Arthur H. Garrison, Rape trauma syndrome: A Review of a Behavioral Science
Theory and its Admissibility in Criminal Trials, 23 AM. J. TRIAL ADVOC. 591, 613 (2000)).
33. Id. at 533.
34. AM. PSYCHIATRIC ASS’N, POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER, supra note 3.
35. Gaines, supra note 20, at 230.
36. Id. “However, the most extensive rape reform is also the most controversial: the introduction
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effects of rape, but “there is a continuing scientific and legal controversy about
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such expert testimony.”
B. Judicial Approaches to Analyzing Syndrome Evidence
One commentator described the entrance of syndrome evidence into the
courtroom as “chaos” because courts vary to great extremes in their approaches
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to the admissibility of syndrome evidence. Judicial approaches to analyzing the
admissibility of syndrome evidence often differ because courts define syndrome
evidence differently. Courts disagree, first, on whether syndrome evidence
constitutes expertise in a given case and, second, whether the evidence is
scientific or nonscientific. These definitions have important ramifications for
the way courts analyze syndrome evidence.
Some courts have found that certain syndrome evidence is inadmissible for
any purpose. For example, at least three states have held that syndrome
evidence for rape-trauma syndrome in particular is inadmissible as expert
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40
testimony because the testimony will not help the jury, the evidence unfairly
41
42
prejudices the defendant, or the evidence is not credible. Although these
states are in the minority, other jurisdictions express similar concerns over the
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admissibility of syndrome evidence. Those jurisdictions do not bar syndrome
evidence altogether, but limit the scope of the evidence when these concerns
44
are present.
Courts must also decide whether syndrome evidence is scientific or
nonscientific because scientific testimony has “traditionally been required to
meet more stringent standards of admissibility than nonscientific expert
45
testimony.” Syndrome evidence is scientific in the sense that it is closely
46
related to medicine, which is generally perceived as a “hard” science, but it is
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nonscientific in other respects. For example, syndrome evidence is subjective
of rape trauma syndrome as evidence.” Id. at 227.
37. Trowbridge, supra note 13, at 462.
38. Bleil, supra note 1, at 38.
39. Minnesota, Washington, and Pennsylvania have each held that expert testimony on rapetrauma syndrome for any purpose is inadmissible. Gaines, supra note 20, at 233–35.
40. See, e.g., State v. Saldana, 324 N.W.2d 227, 229–30 (Minn. 1982) (finding that testimony of
rape-trauma syndrome would not add to the jury’s understanding of the case).
41. See, e.g., Commonwealth v. Gallagher, 547 A.2d 355, 358–59 (Pa. 1988) (holding that
admission of rape-trauma syndrome evidence would invade the province the jury).
42. See, e.g., State v. Black, 745 P.2d 12, 18 (Wash. 1987) (holding that rape-trauma syndrome is
not a scientifically reliable method admissible in evidence).
43. Gaines, supra note 20, at 235.
44. Id.; see also discussion infra Part III.
45. McCord, supra note 2, at 30. For example, Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923),
“requires that the scientific evidence be generally accepted in the scientific community from which it
arose before it is admissible.” McCord, supra note 2, at 30.
46. McCord, supra note 2, at 29–30.
47. Id. at 29.
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and cannot always be scientifically verified. Because syndrome evidence so
often consists of a professional’s opinion, some commentators have concluded
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that syndrome evidence is not scientific evidence at all. Others argue that
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syndrome evidence is “scientific, but not ‘hard’ scientific.” A court’s decisions
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on this distinction may determine the test the court applies to the evidence.
Whether syndrome evidence is scientific or nonscientific expertise, a federal
court’s decision regarding admissibility will in either case be guided by rule 702
52
of the Federal Rules of Evidence, pertaining to testimony by expert witnesses,
and the Supreme Court’s decision in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals,
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Inc. Moreover, many states have evidence laws on the books that are similar to
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rule 702. Under rule 702, courts will only admit expert testimony if it will help
the jury understand the evidence, the testimony is based on sufficient facts or
data, the testimony is the product of reliable principles, and the expert has
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reliably applied the principles to the case.
Daubert adds factors to rule 702 that federal courts should consider in
56
deciding whether syndrome evidence is admissible. Under Daubert, the
expert’s methodology must be reliable and relevant, and there must be a “fit”
57
between the expert’s analysis and the issues. The Daubert factors, which are
exemplary rather than exhaustive, are (1) whether the technique or theory can
be or has been tested, (2) whether the technique or theory has been subjected
to peer review and publication, (3) what the known or potential rate of error of
the technique or theory is when applied, (4) whether standards are maintained
to control the technique’s operation, and (5) whether the technique or theory
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has been generally accepted in the relevant scientific community.
Many state courts have concluded that syndrome evidence is scientific
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expertise, and, like federal courts, apply Daubert. Other state courts, however,
have decided whether syndrome evidence is admissible at trial by utilizing the
48. Bleil, supra note 1, at 40.
49. See, e.g., id. (“Although syndrome evidence is something akin to ‘soft’ scientific evidence, it
clearly is not scientific evidence.”).
50. McCord, supra note 2, at 29–30 (“Psychological research is somewhat of a hybrid . . . While
most people would admit that psychological research is more ‘scientific’ than other social sciences . . .
most would also contend that it is nowhere near as ‘scientific’ as the physical sciences.”).
51. Id.
52. FED. R. EVID. 702.
53. 509 U.S. 579 (1993). Daubert only applied to scientific expertise, id. at 597, but the Supreme
Court extended Daubert’s holding to non-scientific expert testimony in Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael,
526 U.S. 137, 147 (1999).
54. See Bleil, supra note 1, at 52 (citing State v. Saldana, 324 N.W.2d 227 (Minn. 1982) (noting the
similarity between Minnesota’s state rule 702 and the federal rule)); see also N.C. R. EVID. 702.
55. FED. R. EVID. 702.
56. Daubert, 509 U.S. at 592.
57. Id.
58. Id.
59. See, e.g., State v. Kinney, 762 A.2d 833, 841 (Vt. 2000) (announcing that Vermont has adopted
the Daubert standard).
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test laid out in Frye v. United States, rather than the Daubert test. The
Supreme Court held in Daubert that the Federal Rules of Evidence superseded
62
Frye as the standard for the admissibility of expert testimony in federal courts,
but that holding—premised on the federal rules—had no binding precedential
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value in state courts. The Frye test only applies to scientific expertise and
requires the trial judge to find that the expert testimony is based on a scientific
principle that has gained “general acceptance in the particular field in which it
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belongs.” In Frye, when the defendant offered an expert witness to testify to
the result of a systolic blood pressure test, the D.C. Circuit determined that the
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test had not gained such standing.
Although the Frye test is limited to scientific expertise, Daubert applies to
both scientific and nonscientific expert testimony. In Kumho Tire Company v.
Carmichael, the Supreme Court extended the Daubert analysis to nonscientific
testimony, namely testimony based on “technical” and “other specialized
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knowledge.” The Court applied the Daubert factors to nonscientific expertise
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concerning a tire blowout. Thus, in federal courts, the standard for
nonscientific and scientific expertise is the same, so a court need not determine
whether syndrome evidence is scientific or nonscientific. However, in some
state courts, including those using the Frye test, the standard for scientific
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expertise may be more stringent.
The differing judicial approaches to the admissibility of syndrome evidence
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have “created chaos in the courts.” Commentators argue that courts treat
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syndrome evidence as “extraordinary, requiring special rules.” However,
judicial approaches to the admissibility of syndrome evidence need not vary in
71
such extreme ways, and special rules may not be necessary. Although many
states have not adopted the unified federal approach for scientific and
nonscientific evidence, rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence and the
60. 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923), superseded by rule, FED. R. EVID. 702, as stated in Daubert, 509
U.S. 579.
61. For example, Washington utilizes the Frye test. Trowbridge, supra note 13, at 456.
62. Daubert, 509 U.S. at 589 (1993).
63. Trowbridge, supra note 13, at 456. On the other hand, other courts have followed the Supreme
Court’s line of reasoning and abandoned the Frye test. See, e.g., State v. Alberico, 861 P.2d 192, 194
(N.M. 1993) (“Today we abandon the Frye test as a predicate for the admissibility of scientific evidence
by way of expert opinion testimony, relying instead on our Rules of Evidence.”).
64. Frye, 293 F. at 1014.
65. Id.
66. Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael, 526 U.S. 137, 141 (1999).
67. Id.
68. See McCord, supra note 2, at 30 (discussing the traditional rule that scientific expertise must
meet more stringent standards than nonscientific expertise).
69. Bleil, supra note 1, at 38.
70. Id. at 62.
71. See id. at 76 (“Perhaps the most significant improvement which would follow from the
adoption of a ‘no special rules’ approach is increased certainty and rationality in the judicial rulings on
the admissibility of various types of syndrome evidence.”).
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Daubert factors provide a uniform, liberal approach to analyzing admissibility.
First, syndrome evidence generally appears as expert testimony and should be
analyzed pursuant to rule 702 when offered as such in a federal case. Moreover,
syndrome evidence should not qualify as scientific testimony when it is in the
form of an expert’s opinion because it cannot be scientifically verified.
Accordingly, syndrome evidence should be analyzed pursuant to Kumho Tire
Company v. Carmichael, in which the Court held that the Daubert analysis
extends to nonscientific expert testimony. Federal courts can follow rule 702
and the Daubert factors to create greater coherence and consistency in
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analyzing the admissibility of syndrome evidence.
III
DEFENSIVE USE OF SYNDROME EVIDENCE
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Syndrome evidence is more frequently admitted defensively than
offensively in sexual-assault cases; that is, the prosecution may often use
syndrome evidence to rebut the defense’s claim, but this evidence is less often
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admitted to prove the existence of the sexual assault itself. Defensive use of
syndrome evidence generally bolsters the victim after an attack by the defense,
75
but it does not go directly to the credibility of the victim.
Syndrome evidence is generally used defensively in three ways: (1) to
rehabilitate the victim, (2) to explain the victim’s counterintuitive behavior, and
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(3) to rebut a defense of consent. Rehabilitating the victim and explaining the
victim’s counterintuitive behavior can be viewed as ways that syndrome
evidence is used to support the victim. In contrast, rebutting a defense of
consent is the only way that syndrome evidence is used as a true defense for the
victim.
A. Rehabilitating the Victim
The prosecution may introduce syndrome evidence to rehabilitate the
72. Many courts have abandoned the Frye test and rely instead on Daubert and state or federal
rules of evidence. See Hogan, supra note 8, at 244. Many federal courts have thus reevaluated evidence
that was inadmissible under Frye and determined that the evidence is now admissible; therefore, the
Daubert standard may be more flexible and inclusive than Frye. Id.; see also, Bleil, supra note 1, at 76
(“Pursuant to an approach which essentially follows the codified rules of evidence, whenever a proper
foundation for admissibility is laid, there will be more syndrome evidence admitted than under the
current hodgepodge of approaches taken by the courts.”).
73. Defensive testimony usually constitutes testimony that the state introduces in its rebuttal or
case in chief to help bolster the victim after attack by the defense. Hogan, supra note 8, at 535.
Defensive testimony is nondiagnostic. Id.
74. Bleil, supra note 1, at 63–64.
75. Hogan, supra note 8, at 537.
76. Although in this note I group defensive use of syndrome evidence into these three categories,
there will often be overlap between them. For example, syndrome evidence that is used to support
defensive claims can also be used to rehabilitate the victim after the defense has attacked it. Thus, these
categories are fluid and not mutually exclusive.
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victim’s credibility if the defense has attacked it. Some states have allowed
expert testimony to rehabilitate the victim when the testimony shows that the
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victim’s behavior is consistent with rape-trauma syndrome. However, this
evidence cannot go to the victim’s credibility because vouching for credibility
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may invade the province of the jury. At the same time, the evidence must help
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the jury better understand the case. Thus, courts must narrow the scope of the
evidence that is admitted.
Although rehabilitating a victim’s credibility typically occurs after the
defendant has attacked it, expert testimony of syndrome evidence sometimes
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attempts to rehabilitate a victim before the attack. In Hutton v. State, for
example, the Court of Appeals of Maryland held that expert testimony
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regarding PTSD from which the victim allegedly suffered was inadmissible. In
this case, the defendant, the victim’s stepfather, was accused of sexually abusing
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the victim when she was seven years old. The state called, in its case in chief, a
qualified clinical social worker, who was not allowed to diagnose or give an
opinion regarding PTSD but was allowed to describe the general characteristics
of children who have been sexually abused and to relate those characteristics to
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the victim in the case. The state also called, in its case in chief, a clinical
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psychologist who opined that the victim was suffering from PTSD.
The Hutton court held that the expert testimony from both the clinical social
worker and the clinical psychologist invaded the province of the jury because it
addressed the credibility of the victim; therefore, the evidence was
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inadmissible. However, the court also found that PTSD testimony could have
come in to rebut a defense of consent or to explain counterintuitive behavior,
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but this case did not fit within either of those exceptions. Hutton stands for the
proposition that syndrome evidence is more readily admitted when it is
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primarily defensive in nature, and the evidence must be limited so that it is
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helpful to the jury without invading the province of the jury.
77. Hogan, supra note 8, at 535.
78. See Gaines, supra note 20, at 238.
79. Hutton v. State, 663 A.2d 1289, 1296 (Md. 1995).
80. FED. R. EVID. 702.
81. Hogan, supra note 8, at 537. Hogan calls this type of testimony a “defensive/offensive
combination” because it is offered offensively (in the case in chief), but it is rehabilitative and defends
the victim before attack. Id. However, Hogan finds that courts consider this testimony as defensive. Id.
82. Hutton, 663 A.2d at 1296 (Md. 1995).
83. Id. at 1291.
84. Id. at 1291–92.
85. Id. at 1292–93.
86. Id. at 1296.
87. Id. at 1301.
88. See Hogan, supra note 8, at 538 (finding that courts are more likely to admit syndrome
evidence defensively because it is “scientifically sound, helpful to the jury, and not overly prejudicial”).
89. See Hutton, 663 A.2d at 1301 (“The evidence might be offered, for example, to show lack of
consent or to explain behavior that might be viewed as inconsistent with the happening of the event,
such as a delay in reporting or recantation by the child.”).
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Courts have had trouble drawing a line between rehabilitating the victim
and bolstering the credibility of the victim in sexual-assault cases. For example,
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in State v. McCoy, the West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals noted that
expert testimony regarding symptoms consistent with rape-trauma syndrome is
relevant and admissible, especially when the defense has attacked the victim’s
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credibility and the prosecution is attempting to rehabilitate the victim.
However, the court cautioned that only the jury could examine the credibility of
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witnesses. “We, therefore, must draw a distinction between an expert’s
testimony that an alleged victim exhibits post-rape behavior consistent with
rape trauma syndrome and expert opinion that bolsters the credibility of the
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alleged victim by indicating that she was indeed raped.” The court held,
however, that in this case the expert’s opinion on whether the victim’s actions
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after the incident conformed to “typical post-rape behavior” was inadmissible
because her testimony was tantamount to an opinion that the defendant had
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raped the victim. The court found that an “expert may testify that the alleged
victim exhibits behavior consistent with rape-trauma syndrome, but the expert
may not give an opinion, expressly or implicitly, as to whether or not the alleged
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victim was raped.”
Similarly, the Wisconsin Supreme Court has found that syndrome evidence
used to rehabilitate the victim is admissible when it does not include an opinion
97
as to whether the victim was raped. In State v. Robinson, a sexual-assault case,
the Wisconsin Supreme Court allowed expert testimony that explained the
victim’s behavior when the defendant attempted to rebut the complainant’s
98
testimony. The court found that the testimony was helpful because the
defendant had pointed out that the victim was not crying after the assault and
was composed when writing a statement at the police station concerning the
99
assault. The expert offered no opinion testimony on the victim, but testified
only as to her observations of the victim’s behavior and symptoms and her
100
observations of other sexual-assault victims.
The court held that this
testimony assisted the trier of fact in understanding the evidence because it
101
helped the jury understand “reactions with which it perhaps was unfamiliar.”
Because the expert’s testimony did not include the expert’s opinion, there was
90. 366 S.E.2d 731 (W. Va. 1988).
91. Id. at 736–37.
92. Id. at 737.
93. Id.
94. Id. at 733.
95. Id. at 737.
96. Id.
97. State v. Robinson, 431 N.W.2d 165, 172 (Wis. 1988).
98. Id. at 172.
99. Id. Note that the expert testimony in this case also explained counterintuitive behavior, and is
therefore included in part III.B as well.
100. Id.
101. Id.
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no discussion of the expert invading the province of the jury in rehabilitating
102
the victim.
Thus, if syndrome evidence is used to rehabilitate a victim in a sexualassault case, the evidence should generally not include an opinion from the
103
expert as to whether the victim was, in fact, sexually assaulted. Rather,
rehabilitation can occur through expert testimony that merely describes
generally the characteristics and symptoms of the victim’s behavior and
104
observations of other victims of sexual assault. Moreover, expert testimony
cannot address the credibility of a victim because that is a question that is solely
105
for the jury.
B. Explaining Counterintuitive Behavior
Courts generally allow evidence of rape-trauma syndrome if it explains how
a victim’s behavior that seems inconsistent with a claim of rape is actually
106
consistent with the claim. Several jurisdictions limit RTS evidence to that
107
purpose alone. “The goal of the courts using this approach is to allow expert
testimony on RTS to rebut widely-held misconceptions about the presumed
108
behavior of sexual assault victims.”
RTS symptoms that may seem
inconsistent with a claim of sexual-assault include a delay in reporting, an
inability to identify the attacker, inconsistent statements to the police, an initial
109
denial of being raped, and a calm and subdued demeanor after the attack.
Courts that only allow expert testimony to explain counterintuitive behavior do
110
not allow the expert to opine on whether a rape actually occurred.
111
In State v. Kinney expert testimony as to rape-trauma syndrome and “the
112
behavioral patterns of victims of sexual assault” was admissible to explain
102. Compare id. at 172–73 (“[T]he use of expert testimony in relating observations of the way
other sexual assault victims actually behave serves a particularly useful role by disabusing the jury of
some widely held misconceptions about sexual assault victims.”), with State v. McCoy, 366 S.E.2d 731,
736–37 (W. Va. 1988) (noting that an expert should not give an opinion on whether the victim was
raped because a victim’s credibility is a question for the jury).
103. See, e.g., McCoy, 366 S.E.2d at 731; see also, Hogan, supra note 8, at 535.
104. Robinson, 431 N.W.2d at 172.
105. Hutton v. State, 663 A.2d 1289, 1301 (Md. 1995).
106. See McCord, supra note 2, at 43 (“Courts have unanimously upheld the admissibility of such
testimony, reasoning that such evidence will assist the jury because these children’s reactions to sexual
abuse are not within the common experience of the jury.”).
107. Gaines, supra note 20, at 235 (citing People v. Bledsoe, 36 Cal. 3d 236 (1984); People v.
Hampton, 746 P.2d 947 (Colo. 1987), overruled by People v. Shrek, 22 P.3d 68 (Colo. 1987) (en banc);
Goodwin v. State, 573 N.E.2d 895 (Ind. Ct. App. 1991); State v. Gettier, 438 N.W.2d (Iowa 1989);
Commonwealth v. Mamay, 553 N.E.2d 945 (Mass. 1990); People v. Taylor, 552 N.E.2d 131 (N.Y. 1990);
State v. Hall, 412 S.E.2d 883 (N.C. 1992); State v. Robinson, 431 N.W.2d 165 (Wis. 1988)).
108. Gaines, supra note 20, at 235 (citing Robinson, 431 N.W.2d at 172–73).
109. Id. at 235–36.
110. Id. at 236–37.
111. 762 A.2d 833 (Vt. 2000).
112. Id. at 839.
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counterintuitive victim behavior. The victim claimed that the defendant raped
114
her, while the defendant claimed that the victim consented. The expert had no
contact with the victim and did not offer an opinion on whether the victim had
115
been raped. Instead, the expert generally described the symptoms of rapetrauma syndrome and testified that it was not unusual for a rape victim to delay
116
reporting a rape and fall asleep after the assault. The court held that expert
evidence of rape-trauma syndrome was admissible to “assist the jury in
evaluating the evidence, and frequently to respond to defense claims that the
victim’s behavior after the alleged rape was inconsistent with the claim that the
117
rape occurred.”
C. Rebutting a Defense of Consent
The prosecution may introduce syndrome evidence to defend the victim
against a claim of consent from the defendant. The Supreme Court of Kansas,
the Court of Appeals of Maryland, and the Supreme Court of Arizona have all
118
allowed syndrome evidence for this purpose. Although the Court of Appeals
of Maryland and the Supreme Court of Arizona seemed to place limitations on
what the evidence would be admissible to prove, the Supreme Court of Kansas
119
broadly allowed expert testimony of rape-trauma syndrome.
120
State v. Marks was the first reported case in which the prosecution used
121
syndrome evidence to defend the victim against a claim of consent. In this
case, the defendant allegedly raped the victim, the victim related the story to
her roommate, and her roommate called the police and took her to the
122
hospital. The defendant did not deny having sexual intercourse with the victim
123
and instead based his entire defense on consent. The prosecution used the
expert testimony of a psychiatrist and neurologist who discussed the diagnosis
and treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder and rape-trauma syndrome,
which he described as a type of post-traumatic stress disorder that results from
113. Id. at 842.
114. Id. at 837.
115. Id. at 839.
116. Id. at 839–40.
117. Id. at 842.
118. Gaines, supra note 20, at 237–41.
119. See State v. Huey, 699 P.2d 1290, 1294 (Ariz. 1985) (en banc) (holding that evidence of rapetrauma syndrome is admissible to prove the victim’s lack of consent); State v. Marks, 647 P.2d 1292,
1299 (Kan. 1982) (holding that expert testimony of rape-trauma syndrome is admissible to prove the
existence of the rape itself); State v. Allewalt, 517 A.2d 741, 751 (Md. 1986) (holding that evidence of
post-traumatic stress disorder is admissible in a sexual-assault case to prove the victim’s lack of consent
where the expert did not explicitly refer to rape-trauma syndrome).
120. 647 P.2d at 1292.
121. See Gaines, supra note 20, at 241–42.
122. Marks, 647 P.2d at 1295.
123. Id. at 1298.
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124
sexual assault. The expert examined the victim two weeks after the rape and
125
testified that she was suffering from rape-trauma syndrome.
State v. Marks is unique in that the Kansas Supreme Court allowed the
expert testimony to prove the rape itself; therefore, this case is also an
126
illustration of offensive use of syndrome evidence. Despite the court’s
recognition that rape-trauma syndrome at the time was a new development in
127
psychiatry, it held that the expert testimony was admissible. The court stated,
“[I]f the presence of rape trauma syndrome is detectable and reliable as
evidence that a forcible assault did take place, it is relevant when a defendant
128
argues the victim consented to sexual intercourse.” Furthermore, the court
129
held that the expert’s opinion did not invade the province of the jury.
130
Similarly, in State v. Allewalt, the defendant raised the defense of consent.
Here, the state called, in its rebuttal, a psychiatrist who testified that the victim
131
suffered from PTSD caused by rape. The Court of Appeals of Maryland
found that there was “no issue” over the fact that PTSD is a generally accepted
anxiety disorder, and that it was reasonable for the psychiatrist to opine that the
132
trauma causing the PTSD was the rape the victim described. The court
recognized the split of authority in the admissibility of rape-trauma syndrome
but ultimately found that the trial court did not abuse its discretion in admitting
133
the expert testimony. The court focused its holding on the expert’s failure to
mention rape-trauma syndrome by name and noted that the concern with unfair
prejudice is diminished when the syndrome is not associated exclusively with
134
rape. Moreover, the court noted that cross-examination and proper jury
135
instructions can reduce prejudice.
The Supreme Court of Arizona went one step further than the Court of
Appeals of Maryland and found that even evidence of rape-trauma syndrome,
124. Id. at 1299.
125. Id.
126. I cite Marks, 647 P.2d 1292, for the defensive use of syndrome evidence because the
prosecution used the syndrome evidence to defend the victim against a claim of consent from the
defendant.
127. Id. at 1299.
128. Id.
129. Id.
130. 517 A.2d 741, 741 (Md. 1986).
131. Id. at 741–42.
132. Id. at 746–47. However, the dissent believed that the Frye test was the proper standard, and
the testimony did not meet that standard for admissibility because PTSD “is not ‘generally accepted’ in
the relevant scientific community as reliable evidence as to whether a rape in the legal sense occurred
or whether a woman consented to a particular act of sexual intercourse.” Id. at 752 (Eldridge, J.,
dissenting). Even if the Frye test was inapplicable, the dissent would have found that the unfair
prejudice of the expert testimony outweighed the probative value and therefore, the expert testimony
was inadmissible. Id.
133. Id. at 751.
134. Id.
135. Id.
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as opposed to PTSD, would be admissible to show lack of consent. In State v.
Huey, the defendant raised the defense of consent when he was convicted for
137
one count of kidnapping and nine counts of sexual assault. The prosecution
called, in its case in chief, a psychiatrist who treated the victim after she escaped
138
from the defendant. The psychiatrist described the victim’s symptoms in
general terms and referred to the victim’s condition as “an adjustment reaction
with mixed emotional features” which occurs when there is “a psycho–social
stressor that is temporarily present,” but the defendant claimed that the state
139
was effectively introducing evidence of rape-trauma syndrome.
The Supreme Court of Arizona, as an initial matter, disagreed with the
defendant and found that the expert testimony did not describe rape-trauma
140
syndrome but instead consisted of general observations of stress. Moreover,
141
the expert did not use the term “rape-trauma syndrome.” Holding that the
142
evidence was admissible, the court further stated that testimony from a
psychiatrist who examined the victim would have been admissible to show lack
143
of consent, even if the testimony did concern rape-trauma syndrome. The
court recognized that cross-examination would allow the jury to properly weigh
the evidence and therefore, testimony of rape-trauma syndrome would not
144
invade the province of the jury. Because this case involved an issue of consent,
evidence of rape-trauma syndrome would have been admissible, and the expert
could have therefore referred to rape-trauma syndrome directly instead of
145
describing the victim’s symptoms in general terms.
IV
OFFENSIVE USE OF SYNDROME EVIDENCE
A. Diagnostic Testimony
Offensive use of syndrome evidence in sexual-assault cases generally
146
involves a diagnosis to establish that the sexual assault occurred. Thus,
147
offensive use generally occurs in the prosecution’s case in chief. “[A]fter an
expert diagnoses the victim with [rape-trauma syndrome], the State may argue
136. State v. Huey, 699 P.2d 1290, 1295 (Ariz. 1985) (en banc).
137. Id. at 1291–92.
138. Id. at 1293. Although the prosecution called the expert in its case in chief, I cite Huey as a case
illustrating defensive use of syndrome evidence because the evidence is used to respond to a claim of
consent. Id.
139. Id.
140. Id. at 1293–94.
141. Id. at 1293.
142. Id. at 1294.
143. Id. at 1295.
144. Id. at 1294–95.
145. Id. at 1295.
146. Hogan, supra note 8, at 533.
147. Id.
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148
that because the victim suffers from RTS, she must have been raped.”
149
Offensive use of syndrome evidence is atypical. Many commentators have
noted that offensive use of syndrome evidence raises concerns about fairness in
the courtroom and interferes with the jury’s role by vouching for the victim’s
150
credibility. Holly Hogan notes,
Why do courts . . . distinguish between defensive uses and offensive uses? Courts often
find that rehabilitative testimony in the form of defensive testimony is scientifically
sound, helpful to the jury, and not overly prejudicial. Yet, courts generally do not
believe that RTS is legally or scientifically sound to offer as offensive testimony as
diagnostic proof that a rape occurred, and
contend that it infringes on the defendant’s
151
constitutional protections to a fair trial.
Prosecutors have attempted to use syndrome evidence offensively to
152
corroborate evidence that abuse occurred. However, most courts do not allow
153
this type of testimony. In Hutton v. State, expert testimony by a clinical
psychologist who opined that the victim in fact suffered from PTSD was
154
inadmissible because it invaded the province of the jury. In contrast, Judge
Rodowsky, concurring, admonished the majority for allowing physicians to
testify as to their medical opinions in other contexts, yet holding that the
opinions of mental health providers based on the diagnosis of a mental disorder
155
were inadmissible in this case. Judge Rodowsky emphasized the importance
of a PTSD diagnosis in a child–sexual assault case like this one because there is
generally no other eyewitness testimony or physical evidence to corroborate the
156
child’s testimony.
157
Similarly, in People v. Bledsoe, the Supreme Court of California found
that expert testimony regarding rape-trauma syndrome was inadmissible to
158
prove that a rape in fact occurred. The court focused on the fact that rapetrauma syndrome developed as a “therapeutic tool” to identify and treat
emotional problems in patients rather than as a tool to determine the truth or
159
accuracy of past events. The court emphasized that rape-trauma syndrome
148. Id.
149. Id. at 535; see also Hutton v. State, 663 A.2d 1289, 1301 (Md. 1995) (“Expert testimony
describing PTSD or rape-trauma syndrome may be admissible, however, when offered for purposes
other than to simply establish that the offense occurred.”); State v. McCoy, 366 S.E.2d 731, 736 (W. Va.
1988) (“The common thread running through [several courts] is that expert testimony on rape trauma
syndrome is not admissible to show whether or not the complainant was, in fact, raped.”).
150. See, e.g., Hogan, supra note 8, at 539.
151. Id. at 538.
152. Hutton, 663 A.2d at 1297.
153. Hogan, supra note 8, at 538.
154. Hutton, 663 A.2d at 1296.
155. Id. at 1303–04 (Rodowsky, J., concurring).
156. Id. at 1302.
157. 36 Cal. 3d 236 (1984).
158. Id. at 238.
159. Id. at 249.
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may be generally accepted in the scientific community, but not for the
160
prosecution’s purpose of proving a rape occurred.
In contrast, in State v. Marks, the Kansas Supreme Court allowed evidence
161
of rape-trauma syndrome to prove the existence of the rape itself. Despite this
decision, however, “courts remain reluctant to admit offensive RTS testimony
162
to prove that a rape occurred.” Consistent with that reluctance, the Kansas
Supreme Court later limited this decision and held that Marks is not applicable
to all sexual-assault cases:
Our decision in Marks does not in any way authorize a medical expert to testify that in
his opinion the complaining witness in a particular case was raped. The expert
psychiatric testimony authorized by Marks is restricted
to the victim’s state of mind
163
and the existence of the “rape trauma syndrome.”
Thus, in general, courts will only admit RTS and other syndrome evidence to
rehabilitate a victim defensively and nondiagnostically, rather than
164
offensively.
B. Offensive Use by the Defense
The accused may wish to introduce syndrome evidence in sexual-assault
cases, using the absence of post-traumatic stress disorder or rape-trauma
165
syndrome as evidence that no rape occurred. This presents the question, May
166
the defendant compel the victim to undergo a psychological examination?
Although most courts have not addressed offensive use of syndrome evidence
167
by the defense, the Court of Appeals of Maryland has stated, “Lurking in the
background is the nice question of whether the absence of PTSD is provable by
the accused in defense of a rape charge, as tending to prove that there was
168
consent.” The court has recognized that “[w]hen ruling on whether to receive
State proffered evidence of PTSD a trial judge will have to weigh the benefit of
the evidence not only against potential unfair prejudice, but also against the
169
complexity of possibly accompanying issues” such as the defendant’s use of
syndrome evidence.
Commentators have speculated as to whether offensive use of syndrome
evidence by the defense should be admitted equally with offensive use by the
prosecution. Holly Hogan argues,
160. Id. at 251.
161. State v. Marks, 647 P.2d 1292, 1299 (Kan. 1982).
162. Hogan, supra note 8, at 538.
163. State v. Bressman, 689 P.2d 901, 908 (Kan. 1984).
164. Hogan, supra note 8, at 538.
165. Gaines, supra note 20, at 247.
166. Id.; see also State v. Allewalt, 517 A.2d 741, 751 (Md. 1986) (“That can, in turn, lead to issues
concerning compulsory psychiatric examination of the complainant by an expert for the defense.”).
167. See, e.g., Allewalt, 517 A.2d at 751 (“In addition, we can foresee cases where the defendant will
seek to counter the State’s PTSD evidence with his own expert testimony.”).
168. Id.
169. Id. at 751–52.
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Allowing both sides to utilize offensive testimony should not serve as the solution to
the admission of such testimony. One would not argue that the prosecution should be
able to admit contaminated DNA evidence as long as the defense can introduce its
own contaminated evidence. Likewise, there is no reason to allow such dual admission
170
to apply to RTS offensive testimony.
In contrast, another commentator argues that offensive use of syndrome
evidence by the defense should be admitted as long as offensive use by the
171
prosecution is admitted. Kenneth Gaines contends, “Due process guarantees
the defendant the right to a fair trial. At the very least, the court should be
mindful to afford equal treatment to both the State and the defendant on RTS
172
evidence.” Given that offensive use of syndrome evidence by the prosecution
173
is atypical, courts are likely to similarly limit defendants’ use of this evidence.
V
THE UNFULFILLED PROMISE OF SYNDROME EVIDENCE
In the 1980s, prosecutors who had difficulty obtaining convictions in rape
prosecutions realized that expert testimony that the complainant suffered from
RTS could be useful evidence, particularly when the defendant admitted to
174
engaging in sexual acts but claimed it was consensual. Syndrome evidence was
175
particularly important “where the case boiled down to a credibility contest”
176
between the victim and the defendant.
The appeal of syndrome evidence for prosecutors in sexual-assault cases
177
results from the difficulty associated with rape prosecutions. Unfortunately
for prosecutors, syndrome evidence has not been as helpful to victims as one
178
would think. There are several factors that limit the admission of syndrome
evidence in sexual-assault cases: Syndrome evidence is excluded when the
179
180
evidence (1) is not helpful to the jury, (2) invades the province of the jury, or
170. Hogan, supra note 8, at 547.
171. Gaines, supra note 20, at 249.
172. Id.
173. Hogan, supra note 8, at 536.
174. McCord, supra note 2, at 39.
175. Id.
176. Id.
177. Gaines, supra note 20, at 230. Conviction rates for rape remain low, and rape has been one of
the most underreported violent crimes. Id. at 231. “Because of the difficulties of rape prosecutions, it is
understandable that prosecutors would try to use RTS as evidence.” Id. at 232.
178. See id. (“But the transition of RTS from a therapeutic aid to an evidentiary tool has not been
smooth.”).
179. See discussion supra Part III; see also, e.g., State v. Saldana, 324 N.W.2d 227, 231 (Minn. 1982)
(finding that testimony of rape-trauma syndrome would not add to the jury’s understanding of the
case).
180. See, e.g., Hutton v. State, 663 A.2d 1289, 1296 (Md. 1995) (holding that the expert testimony
from both a clinical social worker and clinical psychologist invaded the province of the jury because the
testimony addressed the credibility of the victim).
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(3) is not credible.
When syndrome evidence is admitted, courts have greatly limited the scope
of the evidence. Courts will generally only allow the evidence to come in
182
defensively, such as to rehabilitate the victim, explain counterintuitive
183
184
behavior, or respond to a defense of consent. Even when syndrome evidence
is admitted for these purposes, courts limit the scope of the expert testimony;
185
186
experts cannot offer a diagnosis or an opinion related to the victim. Thus, in
the context of sexual-assault cases, generally, experts can only describe the
187
syndrome and characteristics and behavior of victims of sexual assault.
Moreover, potential offensive use of syndrome evidence by the defense
188
further undermines the protections afforded to victims by syndrome evidence.
One commentator argues that courts should afford the prosecution and defense
equal treatment with regard to syndrome evidence to preserve the defendant’s
right to a fair trial, allowing the defense to use the absence of rape-trauma
189
syndrome as evidence that no rape occurred in a sexual-assault case.
The problem with this argument is that it ignores the effects of syndrome
evidence on the jury. Offensive use of syndrome evidence by the defense is
problematic because it could lead to the “CSI effect.” The “CSI effect” refers to
the effect of forensic science in crime television shows on public perception and
190
juror demands for scientific evidence. Prosecutors assert that “the show’s
perfectly packaged crime stories ha[ve] created unrealistic expectations among
191
potential jurors about the kind of evidence they will see in a real-life trial.”
Therefore, “[p]rosecutors contend that the ‘CSI effect’ has made their job of
181. See, e.g., State v. Black, 745 P.2d 12, 18 (Wash. 1987) (holding that rape-trauma syndrome is
not a scientifically reliable method admissible in evidence).
182. See, e.g., State v. McCoy, 366 S.E.2d 731, 737 (W. Va. 1988) (holding that expert testimony
regarding the existence of symptoms consistent with rape-trauma syndrome is relevant and admissible
to rehabilitate the victim); see also discussion supra Part III.A.
183. See, e.g., State v. Kinney, 762 A.2d 833, 842 (Vt. 2000) (holding that expert testimony used to
explain the victim’s counterintuitive behavior after the rape was admissible); see also discussion supra
Part III.B.
184. See, e.g., State v. Huey, 699 P.2d 1290, 1294 (Ariz. 1985) (en banc) (holding that evidence of
rape-trauma syndrome is admissible to show the victim’s lack of consent in a sexual-assault case); see
also discussion supra Part III.C.
185. See, e.g., Hutton, 663 A.2d at 1301 (holding that diagnostic testimony is inadmissible).
186. See, e.g., State v. Robinson, 431 N.W.2d 165, 172 (Wis. 1988) (holding that expert testimony
was admissible where the testimony did not include the expert’s opinion).
187. See Hogan, supra note 8, at 539 (discussing how experts merely speak generally about rapetrauma syndrome when the syndrome is used for defensive purposes). See generally discussion supra
Part III.
188. See Gaines, supra note 20, at 247 (discussing defendants’ use of rape-trauma syndrome
evidence to show that no rape occurred).
189. See id. at 249.
190. Caroline L. Kinsey, CSI: From the Television to the Courtroom, 11 VA. SPORTS & ENT. L.J. 313
(2012).
191. Cynthia Di Pasquale, Beyond the Smoking Gun: Maryland's Legal Community Debates the
“CSI Effect,” DAILY REC., Sept. 8, 2006, at 1B.
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obtaining convictions more difficult, because resources to do sophisticated
192
testing, such as DNA analysis, are not available in every case.”
Studies have shown that jurors expect the introduction of scientific evidence
193
in criminal trials. Therefore, defendants’ use of the absence of a syndrome to
show that no sexual assault occurred is likely to be given too much weight by a
jury. Thus, the way in which courts have limited victims’ use of syndrome
evidence coupled with the potential offensive use of syndrome evidence by the
defense has a counterintuitive effect on victims and the prosecution in sexualassault cases.
VI
CONCLUSION
Prosecutors thought that syndrome evidence would provide a solution to the
194
difficulties associated with rape prosecutions. Although syndrome evidence
has certainly impacted rape prosecutions, it has had a counterintuitive effect on
victims. Syndrome evidence is no protection device for victims; rather, it has
added an additional dimension of uncertainty to sexual-assault cases.
Syndrome evidence has been an area of great scientific and legal complexity,
195
and courts have approached questions of its admissibility in a variety of ways.
In general, courts have been hesitant to admit expert testimony on posttraumatic stress disorder and rape-trauma syndrome. When courts have allowed
syndrome evidence, they have greatly limited its scope so that the evidence is
nonidentifying, and the evidence is generally only admitted defensively.
Moreover, the potential for defendants to use syndrome evidence to their
advantage is damaging to the prosecution and victims. Thus, the complexity
associated with the admissibility of syndrome evidence has resulted in chaos in
the courts, and the restrictions on its scope have limited protection for victims
of sexual assault.
192. Charles v. State, 414 Md. 726, 731 (2010). The media labeled these complaints as the “CSI
effect,” based on the television crime show, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (CBS television broadcast).
Kinsey, supra note 190, at 317.
193. Donald E. Shelton, Young S. Kim & Gregg Barak, A Study of Juror Expectations and
Demands Concerning Scientific Evidence: Does the “CSI Effect” Exist?, 9 VAND. J. ENT. & TECH L. 331
(2006)
194. McCord, supra note 2, at 39.
195. Bleil, supra note 1, at 38.