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Contents
Outcomes grid
Introduction
Glossary
About the authors
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Index
iv
v
vi
x
Germany 1918–1945
1
Political, social and economic problems, 1918–1923
Golden years? Relative stability, 1924–1929
Nazi consolidation of power
The transformation of social and cultural life under Nazism
Nazi racial policy and the Holocaust
Nazi foreign policy, 1933–1939
Personality study: Leni Riefenstahl
8
18
33
46
62
70
80
Russia and the Soviet Union, 1917–1945
89
The nature of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917
The Bolshevik government, 1917–1924
The Soviet Union under Stalin
Foreign policy and the Great Patriotic War
Personality study: Leon Trotsky
95
108
123
157
172
The Cold War, 1945–1991
181
From World War to Cold War: 1945–1955
The global Cold War, 1949–1961
Crisis depth study: the Korean War
The Cold War in the age of protest, 1960s–1970s
Reagan and the ‘Evil Empire’: the 1980s
Crisis depth study: Nicaragua and the Contra war
Group studies
The end of the Cold War and its legacy
190
Conflict in Indochina, 1954–1979
273
Challenges for the historian
From the Geneva Accords to the NLF Insurrection
Escalation
Tet, ‘Vietnamisation’ and withdrawal, 1968–1973
Vietnam and Cambodia, 1973–1979
281
204
206
226
240
246
258
268
282
295
311
336
353
Outcomes grid
New South Wales Modern History Stage 6
Knowledge and Understanding Outcomes
Chapter
1
Chapter
2
Chapter
3
Chapter
4
H1.1
Describes and analyses the key features of specific
periods of twentieth-century national and international
history
*
*
*
*
H1.2
Evaluates the role of key individuals, groups, events and
ideas during specific periods of twentieth-century national
and international history
*
*
*
*
H2.1
Explains the forces that contributed to change and
continuity during specific periods of twentieth-century
national and international history and evaluates their
relative significance
*
*
*
*
H3.1
Uses historical terms and concepts appropriately within the
contexts of twentieth-century national and international
historical investigations
*
*
*
*
H4.1
Evaluates sources for their usefulness and reliability
in relation to specific historical investigations
*
*
*
*
H4.2
Describes and evaluates different perspectives and
interpretations of the past
*
*
*
*
H5.1
Selects and organises relevant historical information from
a variety of sources
*
*
*
*
H5.2
Plans a historical investigation, analyses and synthesises
historical information from a variety of perspectives, and
presents the findings of the investigation
*
*
*
*
H6.1
Communicates through well-structured texts to explain,
argue, discuss, analyse and evaluate complex historical
information, ideas and issues using appropriate written
and oral forms
*
*
*
*
H6.2
Uses planning and review strategies to manage effectively
the competing demands of complex tasks making
appropriate use of time and resources in order to
complete historical investigations
*
*
*
*
From the Board of Studies NSW Modern History Stage 6 Syllabus (1999), pages 12–13.
iv
Flashpoints
Introduction
Flashpoints: National and International Studies is a book
about four fascinating periods that shaped the twentieth
century, and is primarily written to meet the needs of
students undertaking the New South Wales Higher
School Certificate Modern History Course. Chapters 1
and 2 cover the two most popular National Studies
(Germany 1918–1945 and Russia and the Soviet Union,
1917–1945), while Chapters 3 and 4 cover the two most
popular International Studies in Peace and Conflict
(The Cold War, 1945–1991 and Conflict in Indochina,
1954–1979).
We have chosen the format of a multi-topic book to
allow flexibility and choice in school programming,
without sacrificing content detail and guidance for
students. Each chapter explicitly covers New South
Wales Board of Studies syllabus requirements including
areas of historiographical debate, and interesting and
illuminating source material.
With this in mind, the following features, which are
contained in each chapter, are designed to help students
clearly understand the content and explore the issues
involved in each study:
• topic map
• timeline
• lists of key terms and key people
• schematic overviews of concepts
• historiography integrated into relevant sections
of the text to enable students to understand the significant historiographical issues relevant to each study
• detailed narrative and analysis of each study
• engaging variety of written and visual sources with
questions that will develop a wide range of historical
skills
• short answer questions and activities integrated
within the text.
Internet support
Throughout the text you’ll notice the hi.com.au icon in
the margin. This icon indicates that there is online
support at hi.com.au/flashpoints. The online support
comprises:
• useful websites that have been carefully selected by
the author team
• exam-style questions and marking guidelines for
each study.
Introduction
v
Chapter 1
Germany 1918–1945
Introduction
Contents
At the end of World War I, Germany was a tired,
divided and defeated nation. After a tradition of
absolute monarchs, a democratic republic was
founded with what was believed to be the most
democratic constitution in the world at that time.
During the 1920s the Weimar Republic struggled to
survive under the shadow of the harsh Treaty of
Versailles, causing deep resentment and intensifying
divisions within Germany. From 1924, there appeared
to be signs of recovery but the Wall Street crash of
1929 destroyed the German economy. A combination
of factors gave rise to the Nazis in 1933, a group that
had been on the fringes of German politics only five
years before and whose rule led to the deaths of
millions through the Holocaust and World War II. A
study of the events that led to such horrific suffering is
a reminder that none of us should take our personal or
public freedoms for granted.
• Political, social and economic problems,
1918–1923
• Golden years? Relative stability, 1924–1929
• Nazi consolidation of power
• The transformation of social and cultural life under
Nazism
• Nazi racial policy and the Holocaust
• Nazi foreign policy, 1933–1939
• Personality study: Leni Riefenstahl
Topic map
0 100
300
500 km
SWEDEN
N
FINLAND
NORWAY
ESTONIA
LATVIA
DENMARK
LITHUANIA
IRELAND
UNITED
KINGDOM
BELARUS
NETHERLANDS
POLAND
GERMANY
BELGIUM
CZECH
REPUBLIC
LUXEMBOURG
UKRAINE
SLOVAKIA
LIECHTENSTEIN
FRANCE
SWITZERLAND
AUSTRIA
MOLDOVA
HUNGARY
SLOVENIA
ROMANIA
CROATIA
ITALY
BOSNIAHERZEGOVINA
YUGOSLAVIA
VATICAN
CITY
SPAIN
MACEDONIA
ALBANIA
GREECE
ALGERIA
TUNISIA
Political map of Germany, showing its place in Europe.
2
Flashpoints
BULGARIA
TURKEY
Timeline
1918
January
1919
1923
1929
1933
1934
1935
1936
November
October
January
September
1938
November
1939
1941
1942
1943
June
January
1945
February
April
May
World War I ends
The Spartacist uprising
Treaty of Versailles and the creation of the Weimar constitution
The Munich Putsch; inflation and currency reform
Start of the Great Depression
Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany
Hitler combines positions of Chancellor and President
The Nuremberg Laws
Remilitarisation of the Rhineland
The Berlin Olympics
Anschluss, the Sudetenland Crisis and the Munich Agreement
Kristallnacht
Nazi–Soviet Pact, the invasion of Poland
Invasion of the Soviet Union
The Wannsee Conference and the Final Solution of the Jewish Problem
Imposition of Total War
Nazi defeat at Stalingrad
Death of Hitler
Germany surrenders
Key terms
Anschluss annexation of Austria by Germany, forbidden by Treaty of Versailles
Anti-Comintern Pact treaty between Germany and
Japan signed in November 1935
anti-Semitism hatred of Jews
armistice agreement to end fighting in a war
Article 48 a clause in the Weimar (democratic) constitution that allowed the President, in cases of
national emergency, to suspend the democratic rights
of the constitution and allowed the President to rule
the country (pass laws and appoint new governments)
Aryan originally, a term used to indicate IndoEuropeans; as a Nazi term, it was used to describe a
person of ‘pure’ Germanic heritage/race
Autarky the policy of economic self-sufficiency
Axis the alliance of Germany, Japan and Italy during
World War II
Blitzkrieg German word meaning ‘lightning war’; the
fast, violent war waged by Germany
Chancellor Prime Minister
Concordat an agreement between the Catholic Pope
and the Nazi government on the relationship between
the church and government in Germany
conservative descriptive of people wishing to maintain the political and social status quo
Dawes Plan a plan that reorganised Germany’s reparations payments and arranged large foreign loans in
April 1924; stimulated improvement in the German
economy after 1924
D-Day the Allied invasion of Western Europe at
Normandy on 6 June 1944
dolchstosslegende the ‘stab in the back’ legend or
myth that was an inaccurate blaming of Germany’s
defeat in World War I on the republican government
Germany 1918–1945
3
élite groups in society with power and influence
Enabling Act the law passed in March 1933 giving
Hitler emergency powers for four years, marking the
beginning of the Third Reich
Freikorps German for ‘free corps’; former World War I
soldiers who were anti-communist and nationalistic
Führer German word for ‘leader’; the name given to
Hitler as the unquestioned leader of the Nazi Party
and, later, Germany
Führerprinzip literally, the ‘leader principle’; obedience to the leader (Hitler)
fulfilment the policy of meeting reparations obligations under the Treaty of Versailles adopted in 1922
Gestapo an acronym for the Geheime Staatspolizei
(State Secret Police), a section of the SS, the Nazi
secret police led by Heinrich Himmler
Gleichschaltung the process through which laws
were passed that brought Germany under Nazi control
during 1933 and 1934
Hossbach Memorandum the minutes of a meeting
held in November 1937 in which Hitler described his
foreign policy plans, particularly the invasion of
Austria and Czechoslovakia
hyperinflation extreme inflation
Junker a member of the land-owning aristocracy
Kaiser the German Emperor
KPD the German Communist Party
Lebensraum German for ‘living space’; the Nazi idea
of ‘living space’ for the Aryan people
mark the main unit of German currency
Munich Agreement an agreement among Germany,
Great Britain and France made on 29 September 1939,
which gave Germany part of Czechoslovakia
Munich Putsch a failed attempt to take power in
Munich by the Nazis in November 1923
Night of the Long Knives the purge of the SA and
opponents of the Nazis, which enabled Hitler to gain
the support of the German army
NSDAP the National Socialist German Workers Party,
or the Nazis
Nuremberg rallies annual Nazi Party rallies held in
the city of Nuremberg
putsch attempt to take power violently
Reich empire
Reichstag German Parliament
Reichswehr the term used for the German army until
1935
Rentenmark the currency introduced in 1924 to
replace the devalued mark
reparations money paid by losing country to compensate
for war
4
Flashpoints
republic a country in which supreme power rests with
the people and their elected representative rather than
a monarch; this term is used to describe the government of Germany between 1919 and 1933
Rhineland the land on the border of Germany, France,
Belgium and Luxembourg, which is an important
mining area
SA abbreviation of Sturmabteilung (stormtroopers);
the Nazi private army, also known as the brownshirts
soviet Russian word for council or committee
Spartacists communist movement, named for the
Roman gladiator Spartacus, who started a slave
rebellion in ancient Rome
SPD the Social Democrats, a moderate left-wing party
that supported democracy
SS schutzstaffel (also known as the blackshirts);
originally Hitler’s personal bodyguards; after the SA
was destroyed in the Night of the Long Knives (1934),
the SS became the Nazi ‘police force’
Sudetenland an industrial area in western Czechoslovakia where many German-speaking people lived,
and that was given to Germany under the Munich
Agreement
Third Reich literally, the ‘third empire’; refers to the
time of Nazi rule
The Germans invade Poland.
Concepts overview
Democracy
Militarism
Democracy is a political system in which, generally
speaking, all adult citizens have the right to vote and to
stand for election, and in which the political party or
coalition of parties gaining the most votes forms the
government. From 1918, Germany had a democratic
constitution, considered at the time to be the most
democratic of nations. However, the fact that this
constitution contained a clause (Article 48) that allowed
the President to rule by decree in times of ‘national
emergency’ calls this into question. After 1930,
President Hindenburg repeatedly used Article 48 to
appoint governments, which meant that after this time
democracy ceased to function. Hitler was also able to
use the democratic constitution in order to become a
legal dictator and destroy democracy in Germany.
Militarism is an aggressive political position based on
the role of armed forces in maintaining the power and
security of the state and promoting the interests of the
state internationally. The Nazi government was
militaristic in its aims and outlook, and relied on the
rebuilding of its army in order to fulfil the key aims of
Nazism as outlined in Hitler’s Mein Kampf.
Nazi Germany
Nationalism
Racism
Nationalism is a feeling of strong loyalty towards one’s
nation. At some points in history, nationalism has
inspired independence movements or the belief that
one’s nation is superior to others. In Germany, intense
nationalism was expressed in extreme right-wing
groups, such as the NSDAP.
Racism is the belief that some races are superior to
others and therefore should have more rights and
privileges. Nazi ideology was deeply racist in its belief
that life was a struggle between races that would be
won by the superior Aryan race. The deep antiSemitism of the Nazis was also part of their racist
worldview.
Totalitarianism
and the economy. According to historians such as Ian
Kershaw, this does not apply to Nazi Germany, as their
ideology was not complex, power in the Nazi state still
rested in individuals (i.e., the Führer) as opposed to a
mass party, and the economy was not completely
controlled by the state.
In the 1950s, Carl Friedrich used the term totalitarianism
to describe the government of the Soviet Union, and this
was also used to describe the government of Nazi
Germany. According to Friedrich, totalitarian states had a
complex ideology, a mass party in power, used terror,
monopolised the media, and controlled the armed forces
Germany 1918–1945
5
Key groups
The Jewish community
Nazi Party (including the SA and SS)
• Two of the most important Nazi ideas were those
of race and anti-Semitism.
• One of the main Nazi aims was to create the Aryan
master race and destroy the Jews.
• Policies to make this happen were a core part of
Nazi rule in Germany and were implemented as
soon as Hitler came to power in 1933.
• Race became an important part of most aspects of
German life. For example, Race Studies was taught
in schools.
• The idea of the master race had two consequences:
the need to conquer the ‘inferior races’ outside
Germany to create ‘living space’ for the Aryan
race; and the persecution and eventual extermination of ‘inferior’ races within Germany, particularly
Jews.
• The persecution of the Jews can be looked at in
three stages:
1933–1938: removal of civil rights
1938–1941: intensification of persecution
1941–1945: the Holocaust
• In 1919, Anton Drexler founded the German
Workers Party in Bavaria.
• Adolf Hitler joined and soon came to dominate the
party, which changed its name to the National
Socialist German Workers Party (or NAZI Party).
• By 1921, the party had its own army, the SA, led
by Ernst Röhm. The SA attacked opponents and
protected party leaders.
• In 1923, they felt strong enough to launch the
Munich Putsch. Although it failed, Hitler had
become nationally known.
• The failure of the Munich Putsch made Hitler
realise that the only way to come to power in
Germany was through winning elections rather
than by armed takeovers. The Nazi Party was
restructured, better organised and Hitler consolidated his leadership of the party.
• Understanding the importance of propaganda,
Nazis used rallies, meetings and parades to spread
their message. In 1929, the Nazis received support
from Alfred Hugenberg, an industrialist who
controlled 700 German newspapers and film
outlets. Hitler was able to promote himself on the
national stage as the country fell into the Great
Depression.
• The Depression caused a number of political crises
in Germany. In 1930, government policies caused
greater hardship, leading to widespread anger.
• The Nazis promoted themselves as the only group
who could save Germany.
• The Nazis did not come to power by winning an
election. Hitler manoeuvred his way to power legally.
Wehrmacht (German fighting forces,
1935–45)
• The Wehrmacht (Army) was the most powerful
non-Nazi group in German society between 1935
and 1945.
• After the purge of the SA in 1934, the Army gave
its loyalty to Hitler (all members of the Wehrmacht
gave a loyalty oath to Hitler personally).
• The reintroduction of conscription in 1935
increased the support of the Wehrmacht for the
Nazi regime.
• Although most generals supported Hitler’s militaristic and expansionist aims, tensions did exist.
Some generals doubted Germany’s ability to fight
a war of conquest in eastern Europe because of its
lack of resources. In February 1938, those who
criticised Hitler’s policies after the Hossbach
Conference (see pages 72–3) were removed from
the High Command.
• As the tide turned against Germany in World
War II, members of the military leadership took
part in opposition groups (see pages 37–43).
6
Flashpoints
Women
Youth organisations
• The Nazis believed that women should simply
become mothers and devote themselves to their
families (Kinder, Kirche und Küche: Children,
Church and Kitchen).
• They believed that the family was essential and
that the job of all Aryan women was to produce
children for the Nazi state.
• Women were removed from most professions.
• Women who had many children were rewarded.
• These policies had to be changed in the late thirties
as more workers were needed to help to re-arm
Germany. Women were placed in unskilled and
lower paid jobs, but Nazi propaganda had been so
successful that many women did not want to return
to the workforce.
• The Nazi Youth groups were organised to ensure a
new generation of committed Nazis.
• In 1936, membership of Nazi Youth Groups was
made compulsory. They had nine million members
by 1939.
• The Nazi Youth movement was highly structured
and was made up of different stages:
– Little Fellows (Pimpf): Boys aged between six
and ten.
– Young Folk (Jungvolk): Boys between ten and
14.
– The Hitler Youth (Hitler Jugend): Boys between
14 and 18.
– When they reached eighteen, young men
joined the Labour Front for six months’
compulsory work. After 1937, they joined the
Army.
• For girls, there were other youth groups:
– League of German Girls (Jung-Mädelbund):
Girls between ten and 14.
– The League of German Maidens (Bund
Deutscher Mädel, or BDM): Girls between
14 and 18.
– When they reached 18, young women could
then join Faith and Beauty, which focused
on health, grooming and housework skills
to prepare them for their role as wives and
mothers.
Young members of Germany’s National Socialist ranks
marching before Hitler, March 1931.
Germany 1918–1945
7
Things to know before you start
Left or right wing?
ou will read about parties or politicians being
described as ‘left wing’ or ‘right wing’. Left wing
refers to socialist or communist ideas, and right
wing refers to more conservative or nationalist views.
The Nazis were an extreme right-wing party. You will also
read about parties that were more moderate or centre
parties.
For example, in Australia today, the Australian
Labor Party could be described as a centre–left, or social
democratic party. The Liberal Party of Australia is a
conservative or centre–right party.
Y
Left wing
Moderate/
Centre
Right wing
Communist
Social Democrats
(centre left)
Conservatives
(centre right)
Nationalist
Fascist
KPD
(Communist)
SPD Zentrum
(Centre Party)/
DDP/DVP
NSDAP
(Nazi)
Political, social and economic problems,
1918–1923
29 Oct 1918
Naval mutiny at
Wilhelmshaven
The end of war and a new government
DENMARK
Baltic Sea
N
9 Nov 1918
Kaiser fled
to Holland
6
4
5
1
2 Nov 1918
Sailors took
control of
1 Cuxhaven
2 Bremen
3 Hamburg
4 Rostok
5 Lübeck
6 Kiel
3
2
6 Jan 1919
Spartacist
uprising in
Berlin
B
C
D
G
GERMANY
A
8 Nov 1918
Bavaria
declared a
Socialist
Republic
F
8 Nov 1918
Major riots
in
A Cologne
B Dortmund
C Essen
D Berlin
E Stuttgart
F Dresden
G Leipzig
E
Munich
SWITZERLAND
AUSTRIA
0
Areas of unrest in Germany, 1918–19.
8
Flashpoints
100
200 km
he failure of Germany’s Spring Offensive in
September 1918 made it clear to many members
of the German High Command that the German
army was close to collapse. General Ludendorff told the
Kaiser that they had lost the war and advised him that
Germany should seek an armistice with the Allies. None
of this was made known to the people of Germany, who
had been encouraged to believe, through the use of
propaganda, that there was still a chance for victory.
When defeat came, they were completely shocked.
On 1 October, Prince Max of Baden formed a coalition government that would negotiate an armistice. As
news of impending defeat spread, there was unrest among
the armed forces. Sailors at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven
refused to fight. At Kiel, the German navy mutinied on
28 October. Soldiers sent in to control the mutineers
refused to fire on them. Sailors, soldiers and other people
formed soviets. By 5 November, the mutiny had spread
to other ports, soviets were set up in some German towns,
and a revolt in the city of Munich (the capital city of the
state of Bavaria) led to the proclamation of a Bavarian
republic. In other words, an entire German state had
broken away.
T
One of the most important political parties in the
coalition government was the SPD, a moderate socialist
party with about one million members, who threatened
to withdraw from the coalition unless the Kaiser
abdicated. Fearful that this might lead to a civil war in
Germany, Prince Max persuaded the Kaiser to give up
the throne. The SPD immediately withdrew from the
coalition government (which caused it to lose power)
and set up their own government. Prince Max resigned
and the leader of the Social Democrats, Friedrich Ebert,
became Chancellor. The Kaiser fled the country and a
German Republic was proclaimed on 9 November 1918.
On 11 November, representatives from the new government met with the Allies at Compiègne in France and
signed the armistice that ended the Great War.
This meant that neither the army nor the Kaiser
would be blamed for defeat; those who did not support
the new republican government could blame politicians,
especially the Social Democratic Party, for the humiliation of defeat and a harsh treaty forced upon Germany.
This became known as the myth of the ‘stab in the back’
(dolchtosslegende).
Attack from the left: The Spartacist
revolt
The first problem faced by the new government came
from the extreme left. By mid-1919, this threat had been
eradicated because the army joined forces with the
government to crush communist uprisings. This did not
guarantee stability for the new German Republic, however; the German army did not support the democratic
system or the Republic but opposed communism even
more. It soon became clear that although the army would
swiftly crush any threat from the left, they refused to take
any action against right-wing opposition or uprisings.
At a conference of representatives of the German
states in 1918, it was agreed to set up a new National
Assembly. However, extreme left-wing groups opposed
any kind of democratic parliament and called for
revolution. The Spartacists attempted an uprising in
Berlin in December and January 1918. This was put
down by the army and Freikorps. The leaders of the
Spartacists were murdered.
Who were the Freikorps?
The Freikorps (or Free Corps) comprised more than
200 paramilitary groups or private armies that were
formed after World War I. Made up primarily of exsoldiers and officers, the Freikorps tended to be right
wing and nationalistic, hostile towards the Republic
and saw their role as being to protect Germany from
communism.
Uneasy allies: The Ebert–Groener Pact
To ensure that there would not be a communist revolution or civil war, President Ebert had made an agreement
with General Groener, Commander of the Army, in
November 1918. The Ebert–Groener Pact ensured that
the army, also known as the Reichswehr, would support
the Republic. During 1919, Ebert used the Reichswehr
against the left, but the army’s loyalty to the Republic
was uncertain. In fact, most army officers were antirepublican and anti-democratic, preferring the rule of the
Kaiser. The army did little to stop the murder squads that
killed communist leaders and others.
General Hans von Seeckt, who became Commander
of the Reichswehr in 1920, believed that the army was ‘a
state within a state’, arguing that the interests of the army
were separate from the interests of the government, and
refused to carry out reforms within the army because it
was ‘non-political’.
A new German constitution
After elections in January 1919, the new constitution of
Germany was proclaimed at the city of Weimar, far away
from the unrest and violence in Berlin, which continued
despite the crushing of the Spartacists. The Reichswehr
and the Freikorps soon crushed these uprisings and
defeated the Bavarian republic. Although the Republic
faced threats from both the left and the right, it survived
because the army saw the threat of a communist
revolution (as had happened in Russia in 1917) as a more
immediate problem to be dealt with.
At no stage during the Weimar period did a single
party win power in its own right. Although the SPD
usually won the most votes until 1930, it was never
enough to form a majority, so governments were created
by parties agreeing to form a coalition. These coalitions
were usually unstable and governments did not last long
as a result. There were 25 different governments between
1919 and 1933.
Social and economic problems
The impact of the Treaty of Versailles
As a result of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost:
• 15% of land
• 12% of people
• 10% of coal reserves
• 48% of iron
• 15% of agricultural land • 10% of industry
Germany 1918–1945
9
Germany was also bound to pay reparations for
damage caused in battle zones, shipping losses and the
pensions and benefits paid to allied soldiers and their
families. The total reparations bill was set at US$32
billion dollars.
The German delegates at the Peace Conference,
who had not been allowed to take any part in the treaty
negotiations, were horrified by the harsh and punishing
terms. Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau, the German
Foreign Minister, suggested that they simply refuse to sign
it, and the entire German cabinet resigned. With the
Allies threatening to resume attacks on Germany unless
they accepted the treaty, the new Foreign Minister,
Hermann Müller, signed the Treaty of Versailles.
Source 1.1
Today in the Hall of Mirrors [at Versailles]
the disgraceful treaty is being signed. Do not
forget it! The German people will, with
unceasing labour, press forward to reconquer
the place among nations to which they are
entitled.
Editorial from the Deutsche Zeitung, 28 June 1919.
Source 1.2
A German cartoon
from 1919
Dolchstosslegende: The ‘stab in
the back’ myth
The humiliating treaty was blamed on the Weimar
government, members of which were branded ‘the
November criminals’. The ‘war guilt’ clause in the treaty
caused particular bitterness and resentment. Generals
Ludendorff and Hindenburg had advised the Kaiser to
seek an armistice in September 1918, and advised the
Weimar government that Germany could not resist
renewed Allied attacks if they did not accept the treaty
in May 1919. By November 1919, however, they were
promoting the idea that the treaty should never have
been signed and that it was the new government that had
betrayed the German army, thus leading to the military
collapse of 1918. The fact that the Kaiser had abdicated
before the armistice was signed meant that he was not
held responsible. The ‘stab in the back’ myth also
completely ignored the military weaknesses that led to
Germany’s defeat. Right-wing groups now blamed Ebert,
Müller and Mattias Erzburger, the founders of the
German Republic, for the Schmachfrieden—the ‘shameful peace’. This simple ‘explanation’ for Germany’s defeat
and humiliation became widely accepted; it undermined
the faith that many Germans had in the new republic and
was used to attack democracy in Germany.
The caption reads, ‘Germany, work! The liars
blamed us for the war. Now they also burden us
with reparations’.
Questions
1 Describe the attitude shown towards the
Treaty of Versailles in Sources 1.1 and 1.2.
2 How are reparations presented in Source
1.2?
3 How useful are Sources 1.1 and 1.2 for a
historian studying reactions to the Treaty of
Versailles in Germany?
10
Flashpoints
Attack from the right: The Kapp Putsch
The importance of the Kapp Putsch
The Treaty led to political instability. Many on the right
simply wanted the Republic overthrown by force. In
October 1919, General Ludendorff, Wolfgang Kapp (a
journalist and founder of the right-wing Fatherland
Party) and General von Luttwitz (a leader of the
Freikorps) formed the National Association to organise
anti-republican forces. One of Kapp’s aims was to restore
the German monarchy.
When the German government tried to reduce the
number of soldiers in the army and the Freikorps (as
demanded by the Treaty) in March 1920, the National
Association saw the opportunity for an uprising. In
Berlin, Luttwitz refused to disband Freikorps units and
on 13 March, units of ex-soldiers (who had simply joined
the Freikorps after leaving the army) rebelled—5000
troops seized government buildings. Led by Wolfgang
Kapp, they marched to Berlin and a right-wing government was declared under his leadership. Although the
Commander-in-Chief, General Reinhardt, was prepared
to act against the Putsch, all other commanders refused.
The army’s refusal to move against this takeover of the
government was in stark contrast to their actions against
the Spartacist revolt, claiming ‘Reichswehr does not fire
upon Reichswehr’ (‘the army does not fire upon the
army’). It was only when President Ebert (who had fled
to the city of Dresden) called on workers to help save the
Republic that the Kapp Putsch could be defeated. A
general strike was called, which so completely paralysed
Berlin that Kapp’s government fell after only a few days
in power. However, in Bavaria the SPD government was
forced to resign and a right-wing government took its
place.
After the failure of the Kapp Putsch, the government
was unable to punish those behind the Putsch, mainly
because of their reliance on the army to put down leftwing attacks. The Putsch had set off a wave of strikes and
communist-led uprisings in other parts of Germany,
including a massive revolt led by the Spartacists in the
mining area of the Ruhr. The government had to call on
the army (following the Ebert–Groener Pact) to crush
this uprising.
Although the Kapp Putsch collapsed, it was a significant
event because it showed that nationalist or right-wing
groups were prepared to take action against the Republic
just as readily as the left. It also showed, however, that
workers and unions would fight against any attempted
military takeover (coup).
The Putsch widened the divisions between the army
and the Republic. It showed the government that the
army would only act in its own interests and would never
take action against those whose ideas it supported. This
meant that the army was not a non-political servant of
the government but a group in German society with a
clear agenda of its own and no loyalty to democracy. The
army would ruthlessly crush opposition or uprisings from
the left but supported right-wing or nationalist groups, or
at the very least would not stop them.
It became clear that the relationship between the army
and the government rested solely on their opposition to
communism and their determination to put down any
left-wing revolts. In other words, the Republic’s survival
relied on an army whose leaders did not support it.
Source 1.3
The general strike in Potsdamer Platz caused
transport chaos.
Germany 1918–1945
11
Source 1.4
Questions
1 Describe the effects of the Kapp Putsch as
shown in Source 1.3 on page 11.
2 How can Source 1.3 be useful to historians
studying the reasons why the Kapp Putsch
failed?
3 Explain the significance of the flag that the
soldiers in Source 1.4 are holding.
4 What do Sources 1.4 and 1.5 show you
about the aims of those who took part in
the Kapp Putsch?
The ‘White Terror’
Kapp soldiers holding the Imperial flag during
the Kapp Putsch.
Source 1.5
The proud German Army, after victoriously
resisting an enemy superior in numbers for four
years, performing feats unprecedented in
history, and keeping our foes from our frontiers,
disappeared in a moment. Our victorious fleet
was handed over to the enemy. The authorities
at home, who had not fought against the enemy,
could not hurry fast enough to pardon deserters
and other military criminals, including among
these many of their own number, themselves
and their nearest friends.
They and the Soldiers’ Councils worked with
zeal, determination and purpose to destroy the
whole military structure. Such was the gratitude
of the new homeland to the German soldiers
who had bled and died for it in millions. The
destruction of Germany’s power to defend itself
—the work of Germans—was the most tragic
crime the world has witnessed. A tidal wave
had broken over Germany, not by the force of
nature, but through the weakness of the
Government, represented by the Chancellor,
and the paralysis of a leaderless people.
From General Ludendorff, My War Memories,
1914–1918, 1920.
12
Flashpoints
In 1921 and 1922, there was continued political violence
in Germany. Although there were significant KPD
uprisings in Hamburg and central Germany, these were
put down by the army. Most incidents of mob violence,
terror attacks and assassinations came from the right
in a campaign known as the ‘White Terror’. The most
prominent victims were Mattias Erzburger (leader of the
SPD, and member of the German delegation at the Paris
Peace Conference) and the German Foreign Minister,
Walter Rathenau. Both were murdered by members of
Operation Consul, a group of ex-army officers.
In 1922, the Law for the Protection of the Republic
was passed to combat such attacks, setting harsh
penalties for acts of political violence and terrorism.
Although the majority of assassinations and acts of
political violence were carried out by right-wing groups
(354 out of 376), the German judiciary who tended to
oppose the Republic refused to pass heavy sentences on
right-wing defendants. Of the 22 left-wing defendants,
ten were sentenced to death, while none from the right
received the death penalty and only 28 received any
punishment at all. Their average prison sentence was
four months.
The growth of private armies
During this time, a number of private paramilitary groups
began to appear on both the left and right wings of the
political scene:
Right wing
Left wing
The Stalhelm (steel helmet)
The Reichsbanner
• a group of army veterans founded by former officers
Franz Seldte and Theodor Duesterberg
• main aim was to fight any attempts at a left-wing or
communist revolt
• wanted Germany to return to a monarchy and was
fiercely nationalistic
• began to play an important role in politics by the
late 1920s (see page 29)
• an unarmed movement organised on military lines,
formed in opposition to the Stalhelm
• made up mainly of ex-servicemen who tended to be
SPD and trade union members
The Sturmabteilung (the SA)
The Red Fighting League
(Rotfrontkampferbund)
• the private army of the KPD
• the main opponent of the Stalhelm and the SA
• the stormtroopers of the Nazi Party
• attracted many ex-Freikorps members and
ex-soldiers (see page 9)
Source 1.6
Here in Bavaria, I am in the stronghold of reaction.
At night I am often awakened by the military commands and the march of men (Monarchists) who
are training at night in the forests and in the
mountains. It is a gruesome feeling—this secret
training of men to kill other men. And these men
being trained are peasants and working-men—not
the class we usually think of. In Saxony the same
thing occurs; there at night the men who are under
training are also working men, but the leaders are
Communists. And they are preparing to kill their
kind also. Sometimes I see no difference between
the two. What is this business everywhere—men
preparing to murder their own kind for the sake of
an idea? Not their own idea either, but that of men
who use them as tools to set themselves in power.
We only wait for the day when the two groups will
start massacring each other. Both groups are
bitterly opposed to passive resistance as a method;
it isn’t bloody or sadistic enough.
Extract from a letter written by Agnes Smedley (an
Englishwoman living in Germany) to a friend, 11 August 1923.
Source 1.7
The week has witnessed looting of many shops in
various parts of the city, unrest in most cities
throughout the country, and actual street fighting in
many. Looting and rioting are regarded as so much
grist to the mills of the Communists and the
reactionaries alike. The Communists take advantage of it and preach their dogma; the monarchists
do the same. They smile cynically when they read
of the frightful increase in the cost of living and say,
‘It has not yet gone far enough. It must be worse
still before the masses realize the mistake they have
made in establishing a republic! We shall wait a bit
longer.’ But most of the townspeople are so weary,
so destroyed by uncertainty and long years of
nervous strain, that they do not care what happens.
They are tired of it all.
From an article written by Agnes Smedley in The Nation,
28 November 1923.
Germany 1918–1945
13
Source 1.8
Nothing could be heard but the sound of marching
boots. A small boy in the crowd of onlookers
laughed … two members of the Ehrhardt [a
Freikorps unit] broke ranks, knocked the boy down
and beat him with their rifle butts until he was
quite still. Nobody else moved, although someone
had the courage to hiss. An officer barked a command and machine guns opened fire on the crowd.
Questions
3 To what extent are sources 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8
useful for a historian studying paramilitary
groups in Germany in the early 1920s?
1 What activities are being described in Sources
1.6 and 1.7 on page 13?
2 Describe the attitude of Agnes Smedley to
these events.
Failed coalition governments
Reichstag elections held after the Kapp Putsch in 1920
reflected weakened support for the Republic. The prorepublican coalition of the SPD, the Centre Party and the
DDP saw their majority of 78 per cent of seats plummet
to 45 per cent. This meant that moderate pro-republican
parties were unable to gain an outright majority in the
Reichstag. Smaller extreme parties who were antirepublic, such as the KPD on the left and the DVP on the
right, played a more important role in a series of coalition
governments.
Between 1919 and 1923, a series of coalition governments rose and fell, as no single party was able to win an
outright majority. Between 1919 and 1923 there were six
separate coalition governments. This added to the
atmosphere of chaos and instability that seemed to be the
main feature of republican government.
From G.S. Graber, History of the SS, 1978.
Allies had occupied Duisburg, Düsseldorf and Ruhrort.
By 4 May, the government resigned. The Allies showed
little sympathy with Germany’s pleas that the Plan was
economically damaging, and made a threat (known as
the London Ultimatum) to invade the coalmining area of
the Ruhr if the new German government did not accept
the Plan. Under the policy of fulfilment, the new German
government accepted the London Payments Plan.
During the Genoa Conference in April 1922, called
to discuss international economic problems, Germany’s
international isolation and diplomatic weakness was
highlighted. When the French government continued to
insist that Germany pay the full reparations bill, Germany
decided to negotiate with the Soviet Union. The Treaty
of Rapallo was signed in April 1922 between Germany
and the Soviet Union, with an agreement to drop any
war compensation claims and set up trade and diplomatic
relations, ending Germany’s isolation.
The problem of reparations
The most pressing problem for the new government was
fulfilling the Treaty of Versailles. On 1 May 1921, the
Allies finally set the figure that Germany had to pay at
20,000 billion gold marks under the London Payments
Plan. Under the London Plan, Germany had to make an
annual payment of 2000 million gold marks plus 26 per
cent of the value of its exports. Germany was also bound
to pay reparations for damage caused in battle zones,
shipping losses, and the pensions and benefits paid to
allied soldiers and their families. The total reparations bill
was set at US$32 billion. Under the threat of Allied
occupation if they refused the Plan, the government
accepted—when Germany had rejected earlier plans, the
14
Flashpoints
Economic meltdown:
Reparations and the Ruhr crisis
The Treaty of Versailles also caused economic instability.
After the devastation of war and the losses of territories,
the German currency was unstable and it was impossible
for Germany to pay the massive reparations bill. The
reparations debt worsened Germany’s economic problems. Germany made the first payment in 1921, then
asked the Allies in July 1922 to suspend payments in
order to help the German economy to recover—at this
stage, their national debt was 469,000 million marks. The
Allies refused, so Germany stated that they could not
make further reparations payments in 1923 or 1924.
In December 1922, the Reparations Commission
declared that Germany had failed to supply the coal and
timber ordered by the Treaty of Versailles. In January
1923, France and Belgium sent 60,000 troops to the
coalmining area of the Ruhr to get this ‘payment’. The
people of Germany were outraged. The government
called for a campaign of passive resistance against the
French occupation and the coal miners and other
workers in the Ruhr went on strike. Chancellor Cuno put
an immediate stop to all reparations payments. More
French and Belgian troops were sent to the Ruhr and
occupied it for the next two years. Mine owners were
arrested and the mines and railways were taken over.
Although the campaign of passive resistance was
successful because coal production in the Ruhr fell
dramatically, it had a disastrous effect on Germany’s
economy. The Ruhr was an extremely important mining
and industrial area. Germany was forced to import coal
and lost the income that it would have earned from the
Ruhr. The government paid everyone who lost income
during the passive resistance. This ran to millions of
marks. Government costs had risen by 700 per cent,
and more banknotes were simply printed. Inflation
quickly became hyperinflation, with German currency
completely losing its value.
Date
Value of US dollar in
German marks
The impact of hyperinflation
• Working-class and middle-class Germans lost the
value of their wages; savings and pensions were wiped
out.
• Farmers and landowners survived the crisis as they
could barter their crops.
• Industrialists and big business benefited from the
crisis: they could wipe out their debts. Businesses that
had access to foreign currency or exported goods
made fortunes.
• Radical parties took advantage of the hardship and
despair caused by the Ruhr crisis. The communists
won an extra 58 seats in the elections of 1924. The
Nazi Party began to grow and increase its influence.
• Although the government was weakened, it benefited
economically as hyperinflation resulted in a loss of
government debts. People who had suffered devastating financial losses turned against the Republic.
This loss of support can be seen as one of the longterm causes of the failure of democracy in Germany
by 1933.
• Political instability escalated: in Bavaria, the Land
(state government) suspended democratic rule and
ordered the army to swear allegiance to the state
rather than the Republic; Freikorps units known as
the Fehme or Black Army revolted in Spandau near
Berlin; SPD state governments in Saxony and
Thuringia invited communists to become ministers as
money and advisers from the Soviet Union set up leftwing paramilitary groups; in the Rhineland the
French encouraged the setting up of a republic to
break away from Germany.
July 1914
4.2 marks
July 1919
14 marks
January 1921
65 marks
Solving the problem
January 1922
191 marks
July 1922
493 marks
January 1923
18,000 marks
July 1923
350,000 marks
August 1923
4,600,000 marks
November 1923
4,200,000,000,000 marks
In August 1923, a new Chancellor, Gustav Stresemann,
came to power. He ended passive resistance and stabilised
the currency by introducing the Rentenmark. Ending
passive resistance caused an outcry by right-wing
nationalists and resulted in a failed Putsch by the Nazis
in Munich (see page 16). After Stresemann resigned as
Chancellor, he served as Foreign Minister until his death
in 1929.
Germany 1918–1945
15
Source 1.9
Source 1.11
Two women were going to the bank with a
washing basket filled with notes (money). They
passed a shop and saw a crowd standing
around the window, so they put down the
basket for a moment to see if there was anything
going that could be bought. Then they turned
round and found that all the notes were there,
untouched, but the basket had gone.
A Berlin joke, 1923.
Questions
Cartoon from the German magazine Simplicissimus,
1923. The mother is crying out ‘Bread! Bread!’
Source 1.10
On Friday afternoons in 1923, very long lines of
workers waited outside the pay windows of the
big German factories, department stores, banks
and offices, watching the clocks until at last
they reached the pay window and received a
bag full of paper bank notes.
According to the figures on the notes, they
were worth anything from 700,000 marks up to
380 billion or even 18 trillion marks; the figures
rose month by month, then week to week, then
day to day.
People began running as soon as they could.
They dashed to food stores where there were
further slow queues. Had you got there first, a
half kilo of sugar might have been bought
for 2 million marks. If you were at the back, by
the time you got to the counter, 2 million would
buy only a quarter kilo.
The government printing presses could not
keep up. People carried their money around in
sacks or prams. Life was madness, nightmare,
desperation, chaos.
From K. Heiden, Der Führer: Hitler’s Rise to Power, 1944.
16
Flashpoints
1 What were the effects of hyperinflation as
described in Sources 1.9, 1.10 and 1.11?
2 What were the differing reactions towards
hyperinflation as described in Sources 1.9,
1.10 and 1.11?
3 To what extent does Source 1.10 help you
to understand the reasons why hyperinflation caused a drop in support for the
Republic? Use the evidence from the text
to support your answer.
The Munich Putsch
The right-wing government of the state of Bavaria was
outraged by Stresemann’s ending of passive resistance
against the French. It gave its leader the powers of a
dictator and refused to obey the Berlin government.
Although the Bavarian government toned down its
resistance to the federal government after Stresemann’s
government called on the army to restore order in
Saxony and Thuringia, it remained the stronghold of
anti-republican feeling. During a meeting of Bavarian
ministers with businessmen in a Munich beer hall, the
Nazi stormtroopers (SA) led by Adolf Hitler burst in and
announced that Hitler had taken over the Bavarian
government. Hitler asked the ministers to join a new
national government led by himself and General
Ludendorff. When the Nazis marched on Munich the
next day, they were stopped by the Bavarian police. Hitler
was arrested and the Putsch ended. Hitler was able to
use his trial to publicise his views throughout Germany,
and was given a light sentence by the judges, who
sympathised with him.
Source 1.12
Kahr was sending us off to sleep. He had just said
the words ‘and now I come to the consideration’
which, for all I know, was to be the high spot of his
speech, when the door behind us which we had
come through flew open and in burst Goering with
about twenty-five brownshirts with pistols and
machine-guns.
Hitler began to plough his way towards the
platform and the rest of us surged forward behind
him. Tables overturned with their jugs of beer. On
the way we passed a major named Mucksel, one of
the heads of the intelligence section at Army head-
quarters, who started to draw his pistol as soon as
he saw Hitler approach, but the bodyguard had
covered him with theirs and there was no shooting.
Hitler clambered on a chair and fired a round
at the ceiling. It is always maintained that he did
this to terrify the gathering into submission, but I
swear he did it to wake people up. Anyway, on
home ground at last, Hitler barked an impromptu
proclamation: ‘The national revolution has broken
out. The Reichswehr is with us. Our flag is flying on
their barracks.’
From Ernst Hanfstaengel, Hitler: The Missing Years, 1957.
Source 1.13
The Bavarian Ministry is removed. I propose that a
Bavarian government shall be formed consisting of
a Regent and a Prime Minister invested with
dictatorial powers. I propose Herr von Kahr as
Regent and Herr Pohner as Prime Minister. The
government of the November criminals and the
Reich President are declared to be removed. I
propose that, until accounts have been finally
settled with the November criminals, the direction
of policy in the national Government be taken over
by me. Ludendorff will take over the leadership of
the German National Army, Lossow will be
German Reichswehr Minister, Seisser Reich Police
Minister.
From Adolf Hitler’s speech made in the Munich
Burgerbraukeller, 8 November 1923.
Source 1.14
Hitler shouted, ‘Close the ranks,’ and linked
arms with his neighbours. The body of the man
with whom Hitler was linked shot up into the air
like a ball, tearing Hitler’s arm with him, so that it
sprang from the joint and fell back limp and dead.
Hitler approached the man and stooped over him.
Blood was pouring from his mouth. Hitler picked
him up and carried him on his shoulders. ‘If I can
only get him to the car,’ Hitler thought, ‘then the
boy is saved.’
From the official biography of Adolf Hitler published by the
Nazi Party in 1934.
Germany 1918–1945
17
Questions
1 Compare the accounts of the Putsch in
Sources 1.12 and 1.14 on page 17.
2 Explain the reasons why the descriptions of the
Putsch differ in 1.12 and 1.14.
3 According to Source 1.13 on page 17, what
were the aims of the Beer Hall Putsch?
4 Who were the ‘November criminals’?
5 To what extent were these aims in Source 1.13
widely accepted? Use the text to support your
answer.
Short answer questions
1 Who advised the Kaiser to seek an armistice in
1918?
2 What events took place in Germany as news of
impending defeat spread?
3 Who were the SPD?
4 Why did the Kaiser abdicate?
5 When was the German Republic proclaimed?
6 Who signed the armistice for Germany?
7 What is the Dolchstosslegende?
8 Who were the Spartacists?
9 How was the Spartacist uprising defeated?
10 Who were the Freikorps?
11 What was the Ebert–Groener pact?
12 Was the German Army completely loyal to the
Republic? Explain your answer with evidence.
13 Define the term ‘reparations’.
14 Was wasn’t the Kaiser blamed for the armistice?
15 What was the Schmachfrieden ?
16 How was the Dolchstosslegende used to undermine
democracy in Germany?
17 What did right-wing opponents of the Republic
want?
18 Describe the events of the Kapp Putsch that led
to its failure.
19 What was the importance of the Kapp Putsch?
20 What was the ‘White Terror’?
21 Why was the law for the Protection of the Republic
passed?
22 Describe the attitudes of German judges towards
right-wing defendants. Why did they have these
attitudes?
23 Describe the attitudes of German judges towards
left-wing defendants. Why did they have these
attitudes?
24 Who were the SA?
25 What was the Red Fighting League?
26 What did election results after the Kapp Putsch
show?
27 How many coalition governments ruled Germany
between 1919 and 1923?
28 What was the London Plan?
29 Describe the events that led to hyperinflation in
Germany in 1923.
30 What was the Munich Beer Hall Putsch?
Golden years? Relative stability,
1924–1929
traditional view of events between 1924 to 1929
is that this was a time of economic recovery,
foreign policy successes and political stability
(often called a ‘Golden Age’) for the Republic, which
A
18
Flashpoints
was destroyed by the economic collapse of the Great
Depression that began in October 1929. This caused
the rise of Hitler, who succeeded because he offered
Germans a solution. However, a closer look at Germany’s
Short answer questions
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
When was Leni Riefenstahl born?
What was her original career?
What prompted Riefenstahl to become an actress?
What kind of films did she appear in?
What type of heroine did she play?
Why were these films popular?
Which film marked Leni Riefenstahl’s debut as
a director?
Why was this unusual?
How successful was her first film as a director?
How did Leni Riefenstahl first come to meet Adolf
Hitler?
When did this meeting take place?
What did many Germans who worked in the film
industry do after the Nazis seized power in 1933?
When did Hitler ask Leni Riefenstahl to film the
annual Nüremberg rally?
What was the name of the first rally film and when
was it released?
What was the theme of the first rally film?
How does this film portray the Nazi Party in 1933?
Why was this film withdrawn after 1934?
What is the subject matter of Triumph of the Will?
How successful was Triumph of the Will?
20 What changes within the Nazi Party are clearly
evident in Triumph of the Will?
21 Which Nazi values are communicated in Triumph
of the Will?
22 What was the main subject matter of Day of
Freedom?
23 How did the Ministry for Propaganda ensure that
as many people as possible would see Day of
Freedom?
24 Which specific Nazi policies are reflected in Day
of Freedom?
25 Who commissioned Olympia?
26 What was the subject matter of Olympia?
27 In what ways did Riefenstahl revolutionise the
filming of sporting events in Olympia?
28 To what extent do you think Olympia communicates Nazi ideals?
29 How was Riefenstahl received during her tour of
the United States?
30 What controversy is associated with the making of
Tiefland?
31 What happened to Riefenstahl after World War II?
32 How does Leni Riefenstahl describe her actions in
the 1930s?
Concluding section
Checklist
You should use this checklist to ensure that you understand the Key Features, Concepts and Groups required
for your study of Germany 1918–1945. Fast page references are provided for revision of these essential elements
of the study.
Key features of Germany 1918–1945
• a survey of political, economic and social problems in
the period 1918–1923 (pp. 8–18)
• characteristics of relative stability in the period
1924–1929 (pp. 18–21)
• collapse of the Weimar Republic, 1929–1933 (pp.
22–30)
• foundations of the National Socialist German
Workers Party or Nazi Party (NSDAP) and its role,
structures, policies and impact (pp. 23–9)
• roles and impact of conservative parties and élites on
the political process (pp. 29–30)
• the social, economic and political impact of the Great
Depression (p. 20)
• Hitler’s accession to power and his role as Führer
(pp. 29–32 & 36)
Germany 1918–1945
87
• consolidation of Nazi power, 1933–1934 (pp. 33–6)
• conformity, dissent and resistance in response to the
goal of Volksgemeinschaft (People’s Community)
(pp. 36–45)
• the transformation of German social and cultural life
under Nazism (pp. 46–50)
• nature and impact of Nazi propaganda, terror and
repression within Germany and in occupied territories
(pp. 55–61)
• Nazi racial policy, anti-Semitism and the Holocaust
(pp. 62–70)
• nature of Nazi foreign policy, its aims, strategies and
military successes (pp. 70–4)
• the Nazi war machine and its implications for the war
effort (pp. 74–5)
• support for, and opposition to, Nazism on the home
front (pp. 41–2)
• military defeat and the collapse of Nazism (pp. 75–9).
Concepts to be studied in relation to the
key features of Germany 1918–1945
•
•
•
•
•
democracy
militarism
nationalism
racism
totalitarianism (all p. 5)
Groups to be studied in relation to the
key features of Germany 1918–1945
• the Jewish community (pp. 6 & 62–70)
• Nazi Party, including the SA and SS (pp. 6, 23–9
& 55–6)
• Wehrmacht (German fighting forces 1935–1945)
(pp. 6, 41–2 & 74–9)
• women (pp. 7 & 46–8)
• youth organisations (pp. 7 & 50–5).
Resources
Books
Bracher, K.D., The German Dictatorship, Weidenfeld and
Nicolson, New York, 1971.
Bullock, A., Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, Penguin Books,
Harmondsworth, 1962.
Carr, W., A History of Germany 1815–1990, Edward
Arnold, New York, 1991.
Freidlander, S., Nazi Germany and the Jews: Years of
Persecution 1933–39, Phoenix Press, London, 1998.
Heyes, E., Children of the Swastika, Millbrook Press,
Millbrook, CT, 1993.
Hiden, J., Republican and Fascist Germany, Addison
Wesley Longman, New York, 1996.
Kershaw, I., The Hitler Myth: Image and Reality in the Third
Reich, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1989.
Koonz, C., Mothers in the Fatherland, St Martin’s Press,
New York, 1988.
Landau, R., Studying the Holocaust, Routledge, New York,
1998.
McDonough, F., Opposition and Resistance in Nazi
Germany, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
2001.
Overy, R.J., The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Third Reich,
Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1996.
Shirer, W., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, Secker and
Warburg, New York, 1972.
Films and videos
Cabaret (film), dir. Bob Fosse, 1972.
Europa Europa (film), dir. Agnieszka Holland, 1991.
The Nasty Girl (film), dir. Michael Verhoeven, 1989.
The Pianist (film), dir. Roman Polanski, 2002.
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Hans and Sophie Scholl
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Flashpoints