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EUROPEAN CULTURE AN INTRODUCTION
CLASS 4
Lecture 1
I. Do you know these?
??1.(Even) Homer sometimes nods.
??2.Achilles' heel
??3.Apple of Discord
??1. Even the most skilled and trustworthy people do not always produce work of the
highest quality.
??2.the fatal weak point
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??3.the origin of disagreement
Achilles’ story
??Achilles
??Peleus（[希神]珀琉斯） & Thetis（[希神]西蒂斯(海神 Nereus 的女儿), a sea nymph
??Thetis wanted to make her son invincible by dipping him into the Styx（(环绕地
狱的河)冥河）
??But she neglected Achilles’ heel by which she held him
??Killed by Paris
Story of the Golden Apple
??The wedding ceremony of Thetis & Peleus
??The goddes of discord, Eris（厄里斯(不和女神)）, was not invited, hence, angry
??Golden apple: to the most beautiful woman
??Hera,
Athena,
Aphrodite
（
阿
芙
罗
http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c 蒂(爱与美的女神)）
狄
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??Paris, prince of Troy
??Hellen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta（梅内莱厄斯：特洛伊战争期间的斯巴达王）
??The Trojan War
??II. Historical development of Ancient Greece
1. The Aegean（爱琴海） culture (-20 C.－-7C.)
??Cretan Civilization (-20C-13C): the Minoans（(古希腊)克里特文明）; linear writing;
Non-
Indo-European language
??Mycenaean Civilization (-12C) （迈锡尼文明）: the Akhaians, real ancestors of
Greeks;
Indo-European language
??The Trojan War (-1200 -1170 B.C. ): Troy & alliance of Greek states
??The Dorians（多里安人） from the north of mainland Greece, still babarian tribes,
occupied most
of the Peloponnesus
2. Dark Age (-11C— -8C)
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??Period 1050-750 poorly known, called Dark Ages when there were few historical
records left. ??Kings ruled non-urban Greek communities during Dark Ages
??At
end
of
the
period
aristocrahttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ccy（贵族政治） began
to throw out kings, take over management of
the community
??In the late Dark Ages the Greeks began to form urban centers around a citadel
(fortress). These
centers are called poleis (singular polis). They were well established by the eighth
century
??The polis (city state) （城邦） is the characteristic Greek political institution
of the Classical
period
3. Archaic Period (-8— -7C)
??poverty of the land & overpopulation
??Colonization
?? A huge period of migration from about 750- 550
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??The basic procedure:
??A city → colonists → an independent new settlement overseas
??Sometimes the new city would maintain ties with the metropolis (lit. mother city),
though
sometimes colonies would become antagonistic to the metropolis. Most colonies were
on
the
coast
and
generally
only
took
over
the
immediate
arehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ca, the interior being left
to the locals.
4. Classical Greece (-6-4C)
??A splendid Greek urban civilization. By Greek culture, we mainly refer to the
culture of classical
Greece (that started around -800), especially of Athens.
??Classical Greece is the source from which many of the characteristic elements of
Western culture
derive, and therefore it makes sense to examine this culture.
5. Hellenistic Period (-334-30)
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??Athens & two wars
??Persian War (-5C)→ The Delian（得洛斯人） League→Athens Empire
??The Peloponnesian（（希腊南部）伯罗奔尼撒半岛的） War (-430-404),ending in the
victory of
Sparta
??Alexander, king of Macedon（马其顿王国）, conquered Greece
??The period of the kingdoms set up by Alexander's successors: the Seleucids (in Asia),
Ptolemies
(in Africa), Antigonids (in Europe).
??Cleopatra, queen of Egypthttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c.
Her death marked the ending of the Hellenistic Period.
??From then on, the history entered a period of Roman Empire.
??III .Greek Culture
1.Social $ political structure: 3 ★ ★ ★
??The word "democracy" means "rule by the People."
??In Athens the People in their assembly had full and direct control over all policies
of the state, （文职官员, 地方官员） were directly accountable to the People, and
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had judgment passed on their activities when they left office. Unsuccessful generals
could be (and at times were) tried for incompetence. ??Yet citizenship was restricted
to adult male citizens only. Women, children, foreigners and slaves were excluded
2. Homeric Epics: 3 ★ ★
??The epic is a broadly defined genre of poetry, which retells in a continuous
narrative（叙述性的） the life and works of a heroic or mythological person or group
of persons. The
Iliad 《 伊 利 亚 特 》 ( 古 希 腊 描 写 特 洛 伊 战 争 的 英 雄 史 诗 , 相 传
http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c 为荷马所作), Odyssey《奥德
赛》
are two examples of the epic genre.
??Homer is believed to live around -700, but his works deal with great men and wars
of the period of 1200-1100.
??The Iliad: about the war between Troy and the allied army of Greek states
(-1200-1170). The Iliad
??Paris’ abduction(诱导) of Hellen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta
??Agamemnon(阿伽门农, 特洛伊战争中希腊军队的统帅), Menelaus’ (斯巴达王) brother,
acted as the commander-in-chief of the alliance of Greek states
??Achilles captured Briseis and kept her as a concubine, but Agamemnon took her away.
??Achilles was raged, and refused to fight
??Hector(赫克托,荷马史诗《伊利亚特》中的一勇士名), Paris’ brother, killed Petroclus,
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Achilles’ best friend, probably his male lover.
??Achilles killed Hector
??Destruction of Troy
Achilles
??Achilles is one of the only two people described as "god-like" in the Iliad. This
doeshttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c not just
refer to his supreme fighting ability, but also to his attitude. He shows a complete
and total devotion to the excellence of his craft and, like a god, has almost no regard
for life. Clearly he
does not mind a swift death, so long as it is glorious
??Achilles’ rage was an early representation of western individualism.
??Cf. Chinese ideal personality
3. Lyric poetry 抒情诗: 13 ★
??Lyrics are the written words in a song. For the Greeks a lyric is a song sung with
a lyre.
??Now, it is commonly used to mean a song or a poem of no defined length or structure
that expresses a subjective, personal point of view.
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??Two main lyric poets in ancient Greece: Sappho(萨福：希腊抒情诗人，虽然她的抒情
浪漫诗只保存下一些片段，她仍被认为是古代最伟大的诗人之一) & Pindar(品达：希腊田园
诗诗人，尤以其颂歌集 而著称)
??Sappho was famous for her passionate intensity; while Pindar for his odes
celebrating
the
victories
at
athlhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cetic games.
4.Drama: tragedy & comedy
Origin of tragedy: ★ ★ ★
??Its roots can be traced back to the dithyrambs, the chants and dances honoring the
Greek god Dionysus. These drunken, ecstatic(心醉神迷的) performances were said to
be created by the satyrs half-goat beings who surrounded Dionysus in his revelry.
In this sense, the appearance of tragedy has to do with Greek religious beliefs.
P.S.:satyrs(半人半兽的森林之神, 好色之徒, 性欲极强的男人)
Semantic origin:
??tragos→goat; aeidein→to sing
??tragoidia→‖goat-songs‖
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??Tragedy
??Now it refers to any story with a sad ending or a story that fits a set of requirements
(often
Dionysus[希神]狄俄尼索斯(酒神, 即罗马神话中的 Bacchus)
??Son of Zeus & Semele[希神]塞默勒(Cadmus 之女)
??Hera’s jealousy→ Hera plotted against Semele and caused her to be burnt to a crisp
by the sight of Zeus’ glory.
?? Zeus dihttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cd manage to rescue
Dionysus and stitched him into his thigh to hold him until he was ready to be born.
His birth from Zeus alone conferred immortality upon him.
?? Hera was still jealous and arranged for the Titans to kill Dionysus(狄俄尼索斯
-酒神). The Titans(提坦, 太阳神) ripped him into pieces. However, Rhea brought him
back to life.
??While other gods had temples the followers of Dionysus worshipped him in the woods.
Here they might go into mad states where they would rip apart and eat raw any animal
they came upon. ??Dionysus wandered the world actively encouraging his cult. He was
accompanied by the Maenads(参加狄俄尼索斯酒神节狂欢的女人), wild women, and flush
with wine.
Dionysus in Greek everyday life ★ ★ ★
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??i. Dionysus became one of the most important gods in everyday life. He became
associated with several key concepts. One was rebirth after death. Here his
dismemberment
by
the
Titans
and
return
to
lifehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c is symbolically echoed
in tending vines, where the vines must be pruned back sharply, and then become dormant
in winter for them to bear fruit. The other is the idea that under the influence of
wine, one could feel possessed by a greater power.
??ii. Dionysus & theater
??The festival for Dionysus is in the spring when the leaves begin to reappear on
the vine. It became one of the most important events of the year. Its focus became
the theater. Watching the tragedies here became an important way for the Greeks to
receive education
Three playwrights（剧作家） of tragedy: 14-8 ★
??Aeschylus (-525-456): Prometheus Bound; Agamemnon 希腊的悲剧诗人埃斯库罗斯
??Sophocles (-496-406): Oedipus the King
??Euripides
(-484-406):
more
concerned
with
with ―problem plays‖ 欧里庇得斯(希腊的悲剧诗人)
The idea of fate in Greek tragedies:
conflicts
in
society,
hence,
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two examples
?http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c?Aeschylus’
Prometheus
Bound:
??Two reasons for Zeus’ hatred for Prometheus:
??1. Prometheus stole fire and gave it to humankind
??2. Prometheus refused to reveal the secret concerning Zeus’ fate
Theogony (by Hesiod（赫西奥德(公元前 8 世纪,希腊诗人)):
??Chaos →Gaea →Uranus /Gaea →the Cyclopes & Hecatonchires & Titans
?? Uranus imprisoned the Cyclopes &Hecatonchires
?? Gaea(盖亚-大地女神)/Cronus(克罗诺斯--巨人 Titans 之一) plotted against Uranus
and overthrew him
??Cronus(克罗诺斯--巨人 Titans 之一)/Rhea →Zeus, Poseidon(波塞冬-海神), Hades(阎
王), Hestia, Demeter
??To avoid his father’s fate, Cronus swallowed all his children except Zeus, who
was saved by Rhea
??Zeus overthrew Cronus, and by drawing lot became the supreme god on the Olympus
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??The oracle, which only Prometheus, said if Zeus would have a more powerful son who
overthrow him if he married a certain goddes
://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1car??Prometheus(普罗米修斯-造福
于人类的神) finally revealed the secret: the goddes is Thetis(西蒂斯-海神 Nereus
的女儿)
??→In this case, even Zeus, the supreme god, could do nothing in face of fate
Oedipus the King ★ ★ ★俄狄浦斯(底比斯王子, 曾破解怪物斯芬克斯(Sphinx)的谜语, 后
误杀其父并娶其母为妻, 发觉后自刺双目, 流浪而死)
??Laius, the king of Thebes & Jocasta, the queen
??The Delphi oracle:
??They will have a son who is to kill his father and marry his mother
??The newly born baby was brought to the hillside, but saved by the king from Corinth
??Oedipus grew up, and when learning about the oracle, he left Corinth
??On the way to Thebes, he ran into conflict with an old man and killed him, who turned
out to be Laius
??The Sphinx and its question
??Oedipus answered it, and drove the monster to killed itself
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??Oedipus became the king of Thebes and married Jocasta according to the notice of
http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cthe state ??Disasters befell
on Thebes
??The seer’s revelation of truth
??Oedipus stabbed out his own eyes and exiled himself
??The Oedipus complex in Sigmund Freud’s theory:
??The childhood desire to sleep with the mother and to kill the father
5. History:19-22 ★
??Herodotus (-484-430):
??―Father of History‖, he is famous for the descriptions he wrote of different
places and people he met on his travels and his many books about the Persian invasion
in Greece.
??Thucydides (-460-404):
??The author of the History of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides is generally regarded
as one of the first true historians. Unlike his predecessor Herodotus who included
rumors and references to myths and the gods in his writing, Thucydides assiduously
consulted written documents and interviewed participants in the events that he
records.
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??By
his
discovhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cery
historic causation
of
he created the first scientific approach to history. 6-1. Art:
Architecture
??The most important contribution lies in the temples built upon the Acropolis hill,
so called the "Sacred Rock" of Athens.
??The temples on the Acropolis hill includes the Parthenon-the Temple of Athena
Parthenos, and the Temple of Athena Nike
Three styles of Greek architecture:
32-3 ★ ★
??1. Doric(多利安式) style:
??Rather sturdy and its top is plain. This style was used in mainland Greece and the
colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. (picture: Parthenon - temple of Athena
Parthenos)
??2. Ionic(爱奥尼亚式的) style ★ ★
??Thinner and more elegant. Its capital is decorated with a scroll-like design (a
volute 涡形花样). This style was found in eastern Greece and the islands. (The Temple
of Athena Nike - part of the Acropolis in the city of Athens.)
??3.
Corinthian(
科
林
斯
风
格
的)stylehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c ★ ★
??Seldom used in the Greek world, but often seen on Roman temples. Its capital is
very elaborate and decorated with acanthus leaves. (The temple of Zeus at Athens)
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6.2 Art: Sculpture(雕刻) 33-4
??The earliest Greek sculptures were those of Gods. They are mostly stiff, lifeless
wood carving. ??Towards the 5th century B.C.
??Greek sculpture began to represent the ideal bodily beauty of men as well as
mythological figures.
??Around 5C B.C
??Figures develop more sophisticated anatomy but still retain a "cubic" feel that
has been carried down since Egyptian times. Figures are more three dimensional. Archer
c. 490 B.C.
??"Diskobolos" (Discus Thrower) by Myron c. 450 B.C.
??Understanding of anatomy, and carving of marble, are becoming increasingly
sophisticated. ?? Action is being investigated. A strong sense of body movement and
a good sense of harmony between parts.
://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cr??Laocoon group , ca. 125 B.C.
??Laocoon(拉奥孔), a priest of Troy, was made to suffer a slow death and killed by
serpents with his sons because of his
warning the Trojans against Greek attack.( 拉
奥孔：特洛伊的太阳神祭师，因警告特洛伊人不要中木马计而连同其二个儿了一起被两条海
蟒杀死)
??Noted for successful depiction of the expressions of Laocoon’s face-fear, sympathy
and terror.
7.Philosophy: 22-30
??Western philosophy, tragedy and history start with the Greeks .
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??It was Pythagoras who coined the term philosophia, Greek for 'love of wisdom'
(philo-‖love‖ & sophia-‖wisdom‖).
??The origin of philosophy has to do with the curiosity of the Greeks. They were
strongly interested in abstract questions that were not raised by others. Where did
the world come from? What is the purpose of human existence? What is the best way
to organize human society?
??Cf. ideas in Greek religion
Thales,
the
first
philosopherhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c
??Men in Ionia starting in the early 500s began to speculate about the nature of the
world. Thales of Miletus (early 6th century BC) was the first philosopher of
historical record:( Ionia 爱奥尼亚：古代小亚细亚西部沿爱琴海海岸的一个地区。希腊
人在公元前 1000 年以前在这儿建立了殖民地。爱奥尼亚的海港从 公元前 8 世纪开始繁荣起
来，直到 公元 15 世纪土耳其人的征服) ??All natural phenomena are different forms of
one fundamental substance, water;
??Evaporation 蒸发(作用) and condensation(浓缩):
the universal processes
Three early philosophers: 22 ★
1. Pythagoras
(c. 580-500 BC)
??All things are made up of numbers . (民数记(旧约圣经的第四卷)
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??Pythagoreanism(毕达哥拉斯哲学)was more religious and mystical :
??The soul is a prisoner of the body; it is released from the body at death, and
reincarnated in a higher or lower form of life, depending on the degree of virtue
achieved.
??So the highest purpose of humans should be to purify their souls by cultivating
intellehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cctual
virtues,
refraining from sensual pleasures, and practicing various religious rituals.
2. Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 540-480 BC) 赫拉克利特：希腊哲学家，他坚持斗争和变化
是宇宙的自然状态的观点
??The primary substance of the world is fire.
??The entire world is in a constant state of change or flux. As he said, ―you cannot
step twice into the same river.‖
??Most objects and substances are produced by a union of opposite principles.
3. Democritus (c. 460-370 BC) 德谟克利特：希腊哲学家，他发展了宇宙原子论，并拥护
以自制和安乐为人生目标的学说
??Deterministic materialism:
all aspects of existence are rigidly determined by
physical (natural) laws.
??Atomic theory: various forms of matter were caused by differences in the shape,
size, position, and arrangement of component atoms.
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The Sophists: (诡辩家,博学者)29 ★ ★ ★
The ―sophists‖ means "practitioners of wisdom." In reality they are a group of
traveling
teachers
famous
thttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1chroughout Greece toward the
end of the 5th century BC. Specializing in rhetoric(雄辩，辩才), the art of arguing,
they were more professional educators than philosophers
How the sophists emerged ★ ★ ★
??As Greek industry and commerce expanded, a class of newly rich, economically
powerful merchants began to wield political power. Lacking the education of the
aristocrats, they sought to prepare themselves for politics and commerce by paying
the Sophists for instruction in public speaking, legal argument, and general culture.
??Although the best of the Sophists made valuable contributions to Greek thought,
the group as a whole acquired a reputation for deceit, insincerity, and demagoguery.
Thus the word sophistry has come to signify these moral faults.
Protagoras (c. 490-420 BC): a leading figure of the Sophists: ★ ★ ★
(普罗塔哥拉：希腊的哲学家，被认为是第一个诡辩家。他根据他自己的格言―人类是衡量所
有事物的标准‖来教授哲学)://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c
1. Skepticism(怀疑论)
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?? "As for the gods, I don't know whether they exist.“
??No
existence of any objective or absolute
knowledge.
2. Moral relativism
?? "Man is the measure of all things."
??→Each man has the right to judge all matters for himself, hence, could create his
own definition of morality. No opinion was truer than another, but one might be better.
??→ Since traditional values had been shown to be mere convention, and since
philosophical speculation had removed the divine from human affairs, morality was
purely relative and the advantage of the more powerful was itself "good".
1. Socrates: 23 ★ ★ ★
苏格拉底：希腊哲学家，首创了问答工教学方法，作为获得认识自我的一种方法。他关于道
德和正义的理论，通过柏拉图（他最著名的学生）的著作而得以流传下来。苏格拉底因被指
控毒害雅典年轻人的头脑而受到审判，并因此被处死（公元前 339 年）)
??Belief in absolute knowledge. Socrates attacked the sophists, claiming that the
"good"
was
absolute,
and
that
knowledge
of
whathttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c is right leads one to do
it. No human agent ever knowingly does evil: for we all invariably do what we believe
to be best. Thus, immorality is basically a form of ignorance.
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??Therefore, Socrates’ contribution to philosophy was essentially ethical(伦理学
的)in character. Concepts such as justice, love, virtue, and self-knowledge were the
basis of his teachings.
Socratic method: ★ ★ ★
??Socrates’ most important contribution to Western thought is his dialogical method
of enquiry, known as the Socratic method, or dialectical method. He stressed the need
for analytica(分析法的)l examination of one's beliefs; for clear definitions of basic
concepts. As he said:
??―The life which is unexamined is not worth living‖. — Apology
??The Socratic method is a process in which one keeps asking questions and then
dissecting the answers
to bring out the inadequacies and inconsistencies in
thhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ce
beliefs
of
the
interlocutors. This method Socrates applied to the examination of the key moral
concepts at the time, i.e. the virtues of piety, wisdom, temperance, courage, and
justice.
Effect on western thought
??Pedagogically(教育学的), this classic method of teaching tend to create autonomous
thinkers, as the reasoning process is considered more important than facts, and
students are encouraged to reason rather than appeal to authority. We still remember
what Plato said:
??―I love my mento(门特(良师益友), 贤明的顾问, 导师), but I love truth more.‖
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Plato’s Idealism: ★ ★ ★唯心主义
柏拉图：希腊哲学家，苏格拉底的信徒，他创办了学园（公元前 386 年），在这里他教书写作
度过他余生的大部分时间柏拉图以戏剧对话的形式表述了他的思想，如在理想国 中
??Idealism: The basis of Plato's philosophy is his theory of Ideas, or Forms. Plato's
metaphysics divides the world into two distinct aspects: the intelligible world of
"forms"
and
the
perceptual
world
we
see
around
us.
phttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cerceptual
He
saw
things
the
as
imperfect copies of the intelligible forms, hence, not completely real.
??In other words, ontologically trees, stones, human bodies, and other objects that
can be known through the senses are not real, while the forms of trees, stones, human
bodies, and other objects are unchangeable and perfect.
??In an epistemological sense, beliefs derived from experience of sense objects are
vague and unreliable, whereas the principles of mathematics and philosophy,
discovered by inner, rationalistic meditation on the Forms or Ideas, constitute the
only knowledge worthy of the name.
The Academy he established is the first school in the world.
Aristotle (384-322 BC):
27
亚里士多德：希腊哲学家。柏拉图的学生，亚历山大大帝的教师，他的著述论及逻辑学，形
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而上学，伦理学，自然科学，政治学和诗学，对西方思想产生了深远影响，在其哲学体系里，
理论服从实地观察和逻辑，以三段论为基础，基本上是理性研究的理论方法
tutor of Alexander the Great & founder of the Lyceum which remained for
centurieshttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c one of the great
centers of learning in Greece ★
Differences between Plato and Aristotle in their philosophical ideas ★ ★ ★
??1. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while
Plato's is essentially deductive:
??i. Unlike Plato, Aristotle preferred to establish the ultimate basis of things
inductively—from particular facts to a universal conclusion, or from effects to
causes. In other words, Aristotle emphasizes direct observation of nature and insists
that theory should follow fact. This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective
thinking.
Inductive(归纳的)reasoning: ★ ★ ★
??Induction, sometimes called inductive logic(归纳逻辑), is the process of reasoning
in which the conclusion of an argument is very likely to be true, but not certain,
given the premises. It is always based on limited observations of particular tokens(标
志
)or
recurring
phenomenal
http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cpatterns. For example:
??This swan is white.
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??A billiard ball moves when struck with a cue.
??to infer general propositions such as:
??All swans are white.
??For every action, there is an equal and opposite re-action
Deductive reasoning: syllogism ★ ★ ★[逻]三段论法
【逻辑学】 三段论：一种演绎推理形式，包括大前提、小前提和结论；如，所有的人都会死，
是大前提 我是一个人， 是小前提 因此，我会死 是结论
??ii. In founding the science of logic Aristotle developed the theory of deductive
inference, represented by the syllogism, a deductive argument having two premises
and a conclusion.
??→Human is mortal;
??→ Socrates is human;
??→ Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
??→ All apples are fruit.
??→ All fruits grow on trees.
??→ Therefore all apples grow on trees.
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Another difference between Plato and Aristotle★ ★ ★
??2.
In
his
metaphysical(
形
而
上
学
http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c
的
的
,
纯
)theory,
粹
哲
学
Aristotle
criticized Plato's separation of form from matter and maintained that the Forms are
contained within the concrete objects that exemplify them, that is, the form and
matter were inherent in all things, and inseparable.
??Here, too, he differs from Plato, who holds that ideas are independent beings and
have a higher reality than the physical world.
Hellenistic(希腊风格的)and Roman Philosophy
??From the 4th century BC to the rise of Christian philosophy in the 4th century AD,
the main philosophical schools in the Greco-Roman world were:
??·
??
Cynicism: cf. 29
Epicureanism(伊比鸠鲁学说--享乐主义)
??·
Stoicism
??·
Skepticism
??·
Neoplatonism(新柏拉图派哲学 )
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1. Epicureanism ★ ★ ★享乐主义
伊壁鸠鲁学说：伊壁鸠鲁介导的哲学，认为欢乐、或者避免痛苦和感情上的困扰是最高的幸
福
??Epicurus
(341-270
BC),
an
atomist,
founded
a
philosophical
schohttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1col in Athens in 306 BC.
伊壁鸠鲁(公元前 342?-270, 古希腊杰出唯物主义和无神论者)
??The aim of life is to achieve the maximum amount of pleasure (which he identified
with gentle emotion and absence of pain); virtue is desirable not for itself, but
for the sake of pleasure of soul, which it secures by freeing men from trouble and
fear, moderating their passions and appetites. ??True happiness:
tranquility,
which can only be achieved through self-restraint, moderation, and detachment.
??The erroneous confusion between Epicureanism and the crudely sensual hedonism .
??A common sense of ―epicurean‖: devoted to the pursuit of pleasure; fond of good
food, comfort, and ease.
2. Stoicism ★ ★ ★斯多葛哲学--淡泊主义：不以苦乐为意，淡泊
??Stoicism was the most influential philosophy in the Roman Empire during the period
preceding the rise of Christianity.
??Zeno
of
Citium
(c.
335-263
BC)
founded
the
Stoic
school
in
Athenshttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c about 310 BC. The
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Stoic philosophy developed from that of the Cynics whose founder, Antisthenes, had
been a disciple of Socrates.
齐诺(① Zeno of Citium 西希昂的齐诺, 前 340?-前 265?, 希腊哲学家, 斯多葛派的创始人
Stoic ethics ★ ★ ★
??The Stoics, like the Epicureans, emphasized ethics as the main field of knowledge.
But to the Stoics the most important thing in life is not ―pleasure,‖ but ―duty.‖
Therefore, one must "Follow where Reason leads― so as to resist the influence of
the passions—love, hate, fear, pain, and pleasure, and calmly accept all occurrences
as the unavoidable result of divine will or of the natural order.
?? → the four cardinal virtues of the Stoic philosophy are wisdom, courage, justice,
and temperance, a classification derived from the teachings of Plato.
??A common sense of ―stoic‖: seemingly indifferent to or unaffected by pleasure
or pain; impassive:
3. Skepticism ★ ★ ★怀疑 http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c
论
??A Greek school of thought which continued the Sophist criticisms of objective
knowledge; it denied the possibility of attaining any knowledge of reality apart from
human perception.
??Pyrrho（庇罗(希腊哲学家, 怀疑论的始祖) of Elis (c. 360-272 BC) established a school
of Greek philosophy where the principles of skepticism were first explicitly
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formulated.
??Pyrrho’s primary concern was ethics; he maintained that human beings can know
nothing of the real nature of things, and that consequently the wise person will
suspend judgment.
4. Neoplatonism 新柏拉图派哲学
??Neoplatonism is that form of Platonic philosophy developed by Plotinus in the 3rd
century AD and modified by his successors.
??Neoplatonic doctrine may be characterized as follows:
??1. by a categorical opposition between the spiritual and the carnal, elaborated
from Plato's dualism of Idea and matter
??2.
by
thttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1che
metaphysical
hypothesis of mediating agencies, the nous and the world soul, which transmit the
divine power from the One to the many
??3. by an aversion to the world of sense
?? by the necessity of liberation from a life of sense through a rigorous ascetic
discipline
8. Science
??.Euclid（欧几里德：古希腊数学家，他把逻辑学中的演绎原理应用到几何学中，籍以由定
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义明确的公理导出语句 ）
??Archimedes
（阿基米德：希腊数学家、工程师及物理学家。作为古代最重要的智慧人物
之一，他发现了不同几何形体的面积和体积公式，将几何学应用于流体静力学和机械学，设
计了许多灵巧装置，如阿基米德螺旋泵，并发现了浮力定理）
Cf. p.31
Qualities of Greek culture: 35 ★ ★ ★
??i. Spirit of innovation（改革, 创新）
??ii. Supreme achievement
??iii. Lasting effect
Lecture 2
1. History of Rome: 38-9
I. the founding of Rome
1
Aeneas
??Hero in Virgil’s epic: Aeneid (cf. p.44) (埃涅伊德, Virgil 作的叙事诗)
维吉尔：罗马诗人。他最伟大的史诗埃涅阿斯纪 讲述了埃涅阿斯在特洛伊陷落后的流浪经
历
??son
of
Anchises
and
Venus
&
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chttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cousin of King Priam of Troy
& leader of Troy's allies during the Trojan War (1200-1170 B.C.).
??After the fall of Troy, he led a band of Trojan refugees to Italy and became the
founder of Roman culture (but the city he founded is Lavinium, not the city of Rome
itself).
2
Numitor & Amulius : Aeneas’ offspring
??Numitor, king of the ancient Italian city of Alba Longa, was deposed by his brother
Amulius ??Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silvia, gave birth to twin sons
?? Amulius, fearing that the boys would grow up to overthrow him, had them placed
in a trough and thrown into the River Tiber.
3 Romulus & Remus: a
??Luckily the trough came ashore.
??They were found by a she-wolf.
?? Instead of killing them, the she-wolf looked after them and fed them with her milk.
??The twins were found by Faustulus, the king's shepherd(牧羊人), who adopted them,
calling://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cpar
them Romulus and Remus.
??Romulus and Remus rose against Amulius, killed him and restored the kingdom to
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Numitor,
their grandfather.
Romulus & Remus: b
??Deciding to found a town of their own, Romulus and Remus chose the place where the
she-wolf had nursed them.
??Romulus began to build walls on the Palatine Hill, but Remus jeered at them because
they were so low. He leaped over them to prove this, and Romulus in anger killed him.
??Romulus continued the building of the new city, naming it Roma (Rome) after his
own name.
??The she-wolf, of course, was a sacred symbol of Rome. See a picture of
the she-wolf:
Romulus & Rome
??Its first citizens were outlaws and fugitives, to whom Romulus gave the settlement
on the Capitoline Hill.
??→Problem: no enough wives for all these men
??Romulus
decided
to
steal
women
from
the
Sabines( 萨 宾 人 ),
an
Italhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cian tribe.
P.S.:萨宾人(古代意大利中部一民族,公元前 3 世纪被罗马征服),
??He there proclaimed a festival and invited many Sabines to it. While the attention
of the men was elsewhere Romulus' men rushed in and carried off the women.
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??This was the famous "Rape (carrying off) of the Sabine women", which later became
a subject for painters.
A word on the Roman legend:
??It seems unlikely that any part of this legend is true. Almost certainly it is a
copy of a Greek tale, invented to explain the name of Rome and certain customs.
??For instance Roman brides were taken from their families on their wedding days with
a pretence of force, and this probably accounts for the story of the Sabine women.
??But it is a widely believed that Rome was founded around the end of -8 C. under
the influence of the Etruscans(伊特鲁里亚人.)
History of Rome: 38-9
II. Three eras of Rome
??.
Rohttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cman
Kingdom
(circa
-753--510 B.C.)
??Rome was ruled by seven Kings.
??The population was divided into three tribes (each tribe=10 curie 库里亚/胞族
gens 氏族 )
Political constitution
=100
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??→The earlier Roman form of government was therefore an elective constitutional
monarchy, and the powers were shared by the King, the Senate (or Council of the Elders)
and a thirty member body known as the ―Comitia Curatie‖库里亚大会
??The king was the head of the state, a non hereditary(世袭的),authority, elected
by the curie and chosen from a list of candidates presented by the Senate.
??All the state laws had to be approved by the citizens. Convened by the King, the
curie met to vote, and they could answer yes or no to the king's proposals
ii. Roman Republic (509-27 B.C.)
??In 509 the last king was expelled and a Republic was set up.
a. Magistrates(地方行政官)
??The Romans toohttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ck the power
of the kings (called imperium) and gave it to two annual magistrates called consuls.
b. The Senate
??The senate was a holdover from the council of the kings. Eventually it consisted
only of ex-magistrates. The senate had no right to give orders, but since it was
composed of the most important men in politics, it was hard for magistrates to
disregard its advice, and its influence was great. In the later Republic the senate
acquired control over the state treasury and power to appoint officials.
c.Assembly
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??Theoretically, the Roman People, when convened in various assemblies, had complete
power. They elected all magistrates, tried criminal accusations, passed all laws and
voted on war. In practice the arrangements gave control of the assemblies to the
wealthy:
??The assemblies could only vote yes or no to a proposal put to them by a competent
magistrate.
They
had
no
powers
inhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cdependent
of
deliberation
(unlike the assembly of a Greek democracy).
Patron/Client Relations:
A characteristic institution of the Roman
??The Roman population was divided into two groups: patricians(贵族)and plebeians.
(平民, 庶民)
??The two classes were quite divided: the patricians married and did business only
with the people of their class. The plebeians could narrow the gap between the two
classes only in one way: by becoming clients (obedient servants of a patrician family.
They offered their services and so received the protection of the head of the patrician
family, who became their patron.
??While Greek cities were rent with strife between the poor and the wealthy, the Roman
patron/client system was a means of joining poor and wealthy in common interest. In
effect, it was more beneficial for a given poor person to keep his patron in a position
of
influence
than
it
abolishttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ch
was
such
to
influence
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altogether.
??The Romans applied this system to their foreign affairs. Conquered communities
became the clients of their conquerors (and his family) and could also seek new patrons
among the ruling class. This gave even the conquered an interest in promoting the
Roman state.
Nature Of The Roman Republic
The structure of the Roman government and the influence of the patron/client
relationship meant that the Roman Republic was dominated by the wealthy and that the
theoretically democratic element was very restricted. The Roman Republic was not a
democracy but an elective oligarchy(寡头政治, 寡头政治的执政团)of the wealthy
(basically meaning landowners).
P.S.: 寡头统治政府：指由一些，特别是少数几个人或家族组成的小集团统治的政府
Struggle Of The Orders
(struggle between the patricians and plebeians )
??Aims of Plebeians(平民, 庶民) :
??Access
to
the
priesthoods
and
offices
of
the
state
(eshttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cpecially the consulship)
& debt relief and the distribution of state land.
Methods and Institutions of Plebeians :
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????Secession: to withdraw from the city until they got their way;
??Assemblies;
??Tribunes(古罗马)护民官
??The consequence of the Conflict of the Orders:
?? By 287 The tribunes came to be recognized as state magistrates. The wealthy
plebeians were allowed to seek office, yet they gave up the struggle for the poorer
plebeians' economic grievances. The wealthy plebeians united with the ruling
patricians to form a new political ruling class called the nobility(贵族阶级) This
new nobility was to lead the Republic in its conquest of the Mediterranean.
P.S.: 贵族阶级：由高贵的出身或等级区分的一个阶级的人，在英国包括公爵和公爵夫人、
侯爵
和候爵夫人、伯爵和伯爵夫人、子爵和子爵夫人、男爵和田爵夫人：
iii. the Era of the Empire
(-27-476-1453 AD)
??In 44 B.C., Julius Caesar( 凯 撒 )was assassinated by several members of the
Rhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1coman Senate just one month
after he had declared himself dictator of the Roman world.
P.S.:凯撒(古罗马的将军,政治家,历史家,公元前 100-44)
?? → a new triumvirate (古罗马,三头政治), consisting of Antony(安东尼)(consul),
Lepidus (high official), and Octavian(屋大维)(the grand nephew of Caesar then divided
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up the Roman world.
?? After defeating his last rival Antony, Octavian gained complete control of the
Roman world. To avoid the fate of Caesar, he claimed to restore the Republic and was
given the title of Augustus (27
B.C.) In reality his control of the armies, vast wealth and various special powers
that had been voted to him gave him a position like that of a king.
??This is the beginning of Roman Empire, where the power was centralized in one person,
the Emperor.
Pax Romana:39 ★ ★ ★罗马帝国统治下的和平
??Pax Romana, Latin for "the Roman peace," is the long period of peace experienced
by states withinhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c the Roman
Empire. During this time Rome endured neither major civil wars, nor serious invasions.
It was an era of relative tranquility, though, for Rome still fought a number of wars
against neighboring states and tribes.
??This period is generally considered to have lasted from 29 B.C., when Augustus
Caesar declared an end to the great Roman civil wars of the first century, until 180
AD, when emperor Marcus Aurelius died. It was a time in which Roman commerce thrived,
unhampered by pirates or marauding(抢劫的)enemy troops.
Roman law: 39 ★ ★ ★罗马法：作为现代罗马法律基础的古罗马的法制体系
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??Roman law is a very important contribution made by the Romans. It had been so well
developed that it later became the core of modern civil and commercial law in many
Western countries, including most countries of Europe and South America.
??Cf. Chinese law
??Emphasis on relations/connections
1. Hihttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cstory of Rome: 39
III. The declining of Roman Empire
??The empire began to decline in the 3rd century.
??It was unable to counter the huge Germanic invasions, and it gradually lost control
of territory.
??In 395 the Empire was divided into East (the Byzantine Empire) and
West.
??In 476 the last emperor in the West was deposed by the Goths, which marked the end
of the West Roman Empire.
??It should also be remembered that as a whole the empire did not fall. For Imperial
government continued in the increasingly Greek eastern half. Here a "King of the
Romans" continued to rule down to AD 1453 when Constantinople(君士坦丁堡--土耳其
西北部港市伊斯坦布尔) was captured by the Turks (though of course a Latin speaking
westerner would not recognize the east as being Roman).
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2. Greeks and Romans:
cultural similarities and differences
The
Romans
were
ready
to
learn
from
other
cultuhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cres, esp. Greek culture.
To a large degree, it was the Romans who brought Greek (and Hellenistic) culture to
world attention
I. Some similarities between the Greeks and Romans: 38 ★ ★ ★
i. Language:
??Greek and Latin work in a similar way, for they both belong to the Into-European
family. ii. political ideas:
??The citizen-assembly plays an important role in both political life.
iii. Artistic styles:
??The Romans recognized the richness of Greek art and architecture, and they sought
to emulate(仿效)the Greek masters -- and the Greek styles and themes -- in their own
art.
vi. religious beliefs:
??As the Greeks, the Romans believed in many gods. Also for them a different god looked
after a different part of life.
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??Some examples:
??Jupiter - King of the gods >Zeus
朱庇特：统治诸神主宰一切的主神，古罗马的保护神，朱诺的弟弟和丈夫也作 Jove
??Juno
-
Jupiter's
wife,
godhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cdess of women > Hera
朱诺：罗马万神庙里最主要的女神，朱庇特的妻子亦是其姐姐，主司婚姻和妇女的安康 ??Mars
- the god of war >Ares
战神
??Minerva - the goddess of wisdom > Athena
密涅瓦：掌管智慧、发明、艺术和武艺的女神,智慧和技术及工艺之神
??Neptune - the god of the sea >Poseidon
尼普顿：海神
??Diana - the goddess of the moon and hunting > Artemes
黛安娜(罗马神话中之处女性守护神,狩猎女神和月亮女神,相当于希腊神话中的
Artemis), ??Mercury - the messenger of the gods >Hermes
墨丘利神：各路神灵的使者，其本身是商业、旅行及盗窃的守护神
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??Venus - the goddess of love and beauty >Aphrodite
维纳斯：性爱和形体美的女神
??Mithras - the sun god. >Appolo
蜜特拉神(波斯神话中的光明之神)
??Bacchus >Dionysus
巴克斯, 酒神
II. Some differences between the Greeks and the Romans ★ ★ ★
i. the biggest difference:38
??The Romans built up a vast empire, while the Greeks didn’t. But why?
??Polis 城邦 vs cosmopolitanism 世界主义:
??With their tunnel visihttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1con in
place, the Greeks had thought of the world of the city-state. The Romans came to think
of the entire world as a city in which everyman might enjoy privileges of citizenship.
They looked forward to a world composed of the most diverse elements and people. The
Empire would be synonymous with the world.
??Self-interest vs duty:
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??The Romans did not see their public and private roles as necessarily conflicting
with one another. The height of one's wisdom was to know one's duty and then to do
it, and not to pursue self-interest. In this sense, the Romans were natural Stoics.
??Chaos(无秩序)vs order:
??The organizational power, their military and administrative capabilities also
contributed to the Empire. In general, the Romans were optimistic about life whereas
the Greeks were not. The Greeks saw chaos in the world. The Romans experienced that
same
chaos
but
held
out
for
the
possibility
of
bringing
ohttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1crder out of that chaos. The
Romans managed to translate their thought (i.e. their optimism and faith in man's
ability to cope with the existence of chaos) into actions. The proof is, quite simply,
the Roman Empire itself.
ii. Difference in science and technology
??practicality vs speculation(思索)
??For the Romans, their science and technology features practicality, for they are
not only good at absorbing Greek science, but also good at applying what they learnt.
??For example, the Romans were extremely good at building things, roads, buildings,
bridges, walls....anything they needed. And in the fields of medicine, metallurgy….
??The Greeks, however, are more concerned with the theoretical aspect. Arithmetic,
plane and solid geometry, astronomy, harmonics, together with literary and physical
education, constitute the
Greek
curriculum(
课
程
).
The
five
mathematical
disciplines
are
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usuallhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cy studied without any
practical interests.
3. Latin Literature: 40
I. Prose ★ ★
i. Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.)
西塞罗 Marcus Tullius, 前 106-前 43 年, 古罗马政治家、雄辩家、著作家
??a member of the Roman senate.
??Noted for eloquent (or oratory) and fine writing style, which is described as
Ciceronian; ??His legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction;
??He had an enormous influence on the development of European prose.
ii. Julius Caesar (102/100?—44 B.C.) ★ ★
凯撒(古罗马的将军,政治家,历史家,公元前 100-44)
??He recorded what he did and saw in the various military campaigns he took part in
in his Commentaries. These writings are models of succinct Latin, for he used language
with economy and ferocity. For instance:
??―I came, I saw, I conquered.
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??―The die is cast.‖
II. Poetry: 43
i. Lucretius (93-50 B.C.)
卢克莱修 http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c：罗马的哲学家和诗
人。他的 De Rerum Natura （ 论量物的本性 ），是一首为了把人们从迷信和对不可知的恐
惧中解放出来试图用科学词汇解释宇宙的长诗
Noted for his philosophical poem On the Nature of Things, which expounded the ideas
of Epicurus the Greek atomist.
ii. Virgil’s Aeneid
??In wandering across the Mediterranean (they were said to be hounded by the enmity
of Juno), Aeneas and the Trojan remnant. reached the north African city of Carthage,
where they were hospitably received by Dido, the city's founder and queen.
??There ensued a love affair between Dido and Aeneas,
??which threatened to distract Aeneas from his destiny in Italy.
??Mercury was sent to order Aeneas to depart
?? Aeneas, forced to choose between love and duty, reluctantly sailed away.
??Dido(迦太基女王), mad with grief, committed suicide. 传说中的迦太基女王：迦太基
的创建者和王后，与埃涅阿斯坠入情网，在被抛弃后自杀
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??When Aeneas later encountered her shade on a trip to the underworld, she
turnhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ced away from him, still
refusing to forgive his desertion of her.
??→Virgil presents him as the exemplar of the Roman virtues of devotion to duty and
reverence for the gods
4. Art: 47
I. Architecture(建筑学)
The Romans are great engineers. To gain some idea of their sophisticated technology,
just look at some examples
??The Romans built fantastic bridges all over Europe, like this aqueduct (a bridge
to carry water). This one had a path for walking across, one for riding a chariot
across and a channel for getting water across!
??The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between
animals, the killing of prisoners by animals and other excutions, naval battles, and
combats between gladiators. It has been estimated that about 500,000 people died in
the Colosseum games.
P.S.: Colosseum:罗马圆形大剧场(建于公元 80 年,耗时 5 年,至今大部分尚存)
??the gladiators http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cgames (the
fight man to man ):
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?? Roman favorite game
??The gladiators(古罗马公开表演的格斗者), were trained to become fighting machines.
They competed one against the other with the same or different arms, trying to wound
and kill each other. In
case of defeat, the destiny of the loser depended on the public mood: if everybody
waved the handkerchiefs, he had his life saved, if they turned the thumb down, he
had to die in the arena.
??The athletes of these games were slaves, usually heroes of the masses; one of the
gladiators revolts, that of Sparticus (73-71 b.C.) was one of the most terrible for
Rome
Lecture 3
1. History of the Hebrews : (新约中)希伯来书
I. Canaan(迦南), the promised land:51
P.S.: 迦南(《圣经》故事中称其为上帝赐给以色列人祖先的"应许之地",是巴勒斯坦,叙利亚
和黎巴嫩等地的古称)
??The Hebrews (ancestors of the Jews):
??Descendants
of
wandering
tribes
of
Semites
in
henchttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ce,
which means ―wanderers;‖
the
called
Near
East,
Hebrews,‖
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??After much wandering, the Hebrews under Abraham, settled in lower Canaan;
??With the rough and dry climate Palestine proved to be unfit for living ;
??→toward the fertile Nile Delta(三角州)
II. Exodus【圣】《出埃及记》
??In about 1750 B.C. Egypt was invaded by the Hyksos, also Semites. Hebrews enjoyed
some prosperity in Egypt.
??The Hyksos were expelled from Egypt, the Hebrews had to pay the price of their
kinship:
??They were enslaved
??In about 1250 B.C.
Moses, a new religious leader, determined to lead his people
back to Cannan for a better life. This movement back towards Canaan is called the
Exodus
??Significance: creating the feeling of national unity for the first time.
III. The Torah★ ★ ★(律法, 圣经旧约之首五卷)
??Moses’ formulation of laws and establishment of religious principles :
??Ten Commandmentshttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c
?? → dictated to him by God to the people in the Sinai desert
??Over the centuries the Hebrews developed a whole moral and practical code of living:
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the Torah
??→ The basis of this is found in Pentateuch (the first five books of the Old Testament:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy)
??Moses, however, died before the Hebrews actually reached Canaan.
VI. The Kings《列王纪》
??The Hebrew settlers ran into trouble with the other peoples who had been living
in Canaan, esp. the Philistines
?? Samson led the Hebrews to score victory against the Philistines
??After Samson's death Saul set up the first royal dynasty of the Hebrews
??Saul was succeeded by his son-in-law David in about 1010 B.C.
??David was succeeded by his son Solomon
in 970 B.C.
V. Collapse of Kingdom
??After
Solomon's
death
the
kingdom
was
divided
into
thttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cwo unequal and independent
parts - Israel with Samaria as the capital, and Judah(犹大), retaining Jerusalem
??In 721 B.C. Israel was conquered by king of Assyria(亚述)
P.S.: 亚述：亚洲西部底格里河流域北部一帝国和文明古国。公元前 9 世纪至 7 世纪，在它
的强盛时期，亚述帝国的疆域从地中海跨越阿拉伯和亚美尼亚地区
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??In 586 B.C. Judah was conquered by the Babylonian king, and lots of
Jews were
brought to Babylon as captives. This is the famous ”Babylonian captivity”
??It was not until Cyrus the Great of Persia 波斯（西南亚国家，现在的伊朗）conquered
Babylon in 539 B.C. did the Jews regained some powers → self governance for five
hundred years
P.S.: Persia 波斯：西南亚一个强大的帝国，公元前 546 年后由居鲁士二世建立。到了大流
士一世和他儿子色雷斯时期，帝国达到全盛时期 。公元前 334 年亚历山大大帝征服了波斯 。
后来的帝国由萨桑王朝建立( 公元 226-637 年）
VI. Conquest by the Romans
??In 70 B.C. the Roman emperor Titus took Jerusalem. Following this the Jewish people
dispersed and left their land to make a living as best they could in different
countries
throuhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cghout
the
world.
2. Judaism and Christianity: Similarities: 51 ★ ★ ★
Judaism and Christianity are closely related:
I. Christianity emerged from Judaism, hence there are many concepts and values held
in common by Judaism and Christianity (the body of these concepts and values is also
called Judeo-Christian tradition ):
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Judeo-Christian tradition
??i. Monotheism( 一 神 论 ): Both religions reject atheism, on the one hand, and
polytheism, on the other
??ii. Belief in a Messiah(救世主：犹太人所盼望的复国救主及犹太国王)
??iii. Form of worship: including a priesthood(教士, 僧侣, 神父) concepts of sacred
space and sacred time, the idea that worship here on Earth is patterned after worship
in Heaven, and the use of the Psalms(圣歌)in community prayer.
?? II. Both originated in Palestine, which led to exchange of ideas over wide areas.
2.
Judaism
and
Dhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cifferences:
Christianity:
★ ★ ★
i. Notion of God: oneness vs trinitarianism?[基督教]三位一体论, 三位一体之教理)
??By the notion of monotheism, Judaism’s idea is that there is one God, and God is
completely. The Christian notion is that God is a trinity, made up of God the Father,
God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.
ii. The Messiah (David vs Jesus)
??Jews believe that the messiah is a descendant of King David who will one day usher
in a messianic era of peace and prosperity for Israel and all the nations of the world.
The traditional Jewish understanding of the messiah is fully human, born of human
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parents, without any supernatural element.
??Christians hold Jesus to be the messiah foretold in the Hebrew Bible. He is believed
to be the son of God in a literal sense, fully human, and simultaneously divine, fully
God. In this view, Jesus the messiah is the son of God who offers salvation to all
humans.
iii. Shttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cin and Original Sin
??Sin is the Christian idea that people make mistakes or offenses against God.
Original sin is the Christian idea that a newborn baby has guilt for sin before taking
any action to offend God
??Jews have no concept of Original Sin, and do not accept it, for Judaism teaches
that humans are born morally neutral (But Judaism affirms that people are born with
a tendency towards goodness).
IV. Salvation(超度，赎罪) and attaining an afterlife
??Judaism believes that sins can be atoned for through repentance
??Most forms of Christianity teach that one can only be saved through the acceptance
of Jesus as a saviour, and that repentance accomplishes nothing without belief in
Jesus .
??Read for more differences than have been mentioned.
3. the Bible:52 ★
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??I. The Bible is made up of the Old Testament and the New Testament.
??The Old Testamehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cnt is about
God and the laws of God, while the latter about the doctrines of Jesus Christ.
??The word ―testament‖ means ―agreement‖ or ―covenant‖, namely, the agreement
between God and Man.
The Old Testament
??I. The Pentateuch:52★
??
Genesis (《创世记》)
??
Exodus（《出埃及》）
??
Leviticus （《利未记》）
??
Numbers （《民数记》）
??
Deuteronomy （《申命记》）
??
i. Genesis: 53
??God created the world in six days
??→the Sabbath day (the seventh day)
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??Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden
??→relationship between man & woman
??→ Mr. Right: attitudes of marriage?
??Eve and Adam were tempted to eat the forbidden fruit by the serpent
??God became angry and drove them out of the Paradise.
??God’s anger:
??→ When God created man in His image, man is already like God. If man eats the
fruhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cit and thus has knowledge
of good and evil he will be exactly the same as God.
ii. Noah’s Ark: 56
诺亚：在旧约圣经中，被上帝选去建造方舟的大主教，借此方舟，诺亚、其家人以及每种动
物的一对，在世界大水中保全了性命
??Men became increasingly corrupt
??For the knowledge of evil had been passed on by Adam and Eve
??God decided to put an end to mankind, with the exception of Noah.
??Noah’s descendant Abraham
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??He and his people were chosen by Yahweh, who promised them the land of Canaan
iii. Ten Commandments:61 十诫
??Monotheism:
??―Thou shalt have none other gods before me.‖
??―Thou shalt not make thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing …thou
shalt not bow down thyself unto them, nor serve them; for I the Lord thy God am a
jealous God…‖
??Moralistic concern:
??―Honour thy father and thy mother…‖
??―Thou shalt not kill.‖
??―Neither
shalt
thou
commit
adulthttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cery(通奸).‖
??―Neither shalt thou steal.‖
??
4. Rise & Spread of Christianity 基督教:73
??I. Early Christianity
??Early Christians’ notion of divine creation, their concern for God and salvation
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all stemmed from Judaism of the Hebrews. But Christianity based itself on two forceful
beliefs which separate it from all other religions:
??i. Jesus Christ is the Son of God, and God sent him to earth to live as humans live,
suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem(赎回, 挽回)mankind.
??ii. By faith in Jesus, the only begotten son of God, one may attain salvation and
eternal life.
Location of Jesus’ Birth
??Mary the virgin was engaged to Joseph the carpenter in Nazareth (巴勒斯坦地区北
部古城--拿撒勒), but she was impregnated with the Holy spirit and
gave birth to
God’s son Jesus (in a stable of an inn in Bethlehem).
Miracles of Jesus:
??power
over
nature,
power
over
diseahttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cse, and even power over
death
Death of Jesus:
?? Jewish leaders wanted to kill Jesus on the charge of blasphemy, and had Jesus
arrested. A Roman governor named Pilate tried Jesus. He wanted to release Jesus. But
when the Jews threatened to riot, Pilate condemned Jesus to death on a cross.
Resurrection: 复苏
??On the third day after Jesus died, Jesus rose from the tomb.
to many believers, commanding them to teach and baptize others.
He later appeared
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The Sermon(说教, 布道)on the Mount
??Jesus delivered his most famous sermon on a mountain. In it, Jesus taught his
listeners to:
??? Love your enemies.
??? Do not judge others.
??? Trust God.
??? Don't be anxious about tomorrow.
??? Do unto others as you would have them do unto you (The "golden rule").
A Summary on Jesus
??While
the
Christian
doctrine(
教
条
)holds
Jeshttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cus is the son of God, the
fact may be that he is the founder of the new faith, teaching a way of life and faith
grounded in a long-established prophetic tradition of Judaism.
??He emphasized the love and mercy of God, the love and brotherhood of men of good
will, the unimportance of worldly wealth and power, and the comfort and promise of
redemption and happiness in a blessed hereafter.
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II. Persecutions(迫害)of Christians in Roman Empire ★ ★ ★
??At first Rome paid little attention to the religion. They tolerated the Christians
because they were regarded as a harmless sect of the Jews.
??Then two things became apparent as the movement spread:
??i. The Christians under no circumstance would worship any other god and refused
even the conventional emperor worship of the deified Augustus which was required of
all Romans;
??ii.
The
meetings
of
the
Christians
were
secret
and
thehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cy refused to divulge to
those not initiated into the sect the proceedings of their gatherings →rumor among
the Roman populace that Christians met in secret assembly and ate the bodies and drank
the blood of small children
?? It was because of these two factors that Christianity was persecuted
??Persecution of Christians by the Roman authorities encouraged the spread of the
faith and a change in its emphasis. "The blood of the martyrs was the seed of the
church." A cult(宗教仪式) of martyrs 殉道者 developed, and even those who had not
the heart for martyrdom themselves revered local martyrs, and believed in the miracles
reported of them in their lives and of their relics after death.
P.S.: martyrs 殉道者，殉教者，烈士：指宁愿选择去死也不愿放弃其宗教信条的人
??For simple and uneducated people, these martyr-saints supplied the place of older
deities who had been credited with magical powers and gave them something closer than
a remote majehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cstic God and his
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crucified(处死：把…钉在或绑在十字架上处死) Son with which to meet the terrors and
trials of the world.
III. The Fourth Century
??Of all the centuries of Christian history, besides that formative first century,
it is the fourth that is the most important, for
??It was during the fourth century that the Christian religion became a tolerated
religion, then toward the end of the century emerged as the State Religion of the
Empire.
?? The great breakthrough for the Christians came when the Emperor Constantine
declared it a tolerated (legal) religion in his famous Edict of Milan in 313 A.D.
i. Emperor Constantine
??Constantine the Great (313-337) was born about 274 A.D. to the Roman general
Constantius,, and his concubine Helena
??who was a Christian.
??In 305, Constantius was made the Augustus, the supreme ruler in the West.
??After his father’s http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cdeath
Constantine was elected as Emperor
??As he was leading his army against Maxentius who also claimed the title of Augustus,
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Constantine relied upon the counsel of his mother and prayed to the Christian God
for a victory.
??The next day, they were victorious in battle. For this one act, Constantine granted
freedom of worship to the Christians in the famous Edict(布告, 法令) of Milan(米
兰), the Magna Carta of religious liberty.
P.S.
Milan 米兰：意大利北部一城市，位于热那亚东北。可能由塞尔特人所建，公元前 222
年被罗马人占领，因其处于战略要地，自中世纪以来一直是一个重要的商业、金融、文化和
工业中心。
??Seeing in it the hope of moral solidarity as well as the consolidation of the Empire,
Constantine adopted a preferable attitude to Christianity. He was even baptized as
a Christian upon his death bed.
ii.. Establishment as the State Religion of Roman Empire
??The emperors who followed Constantine continued pro-Christian policies.
??In
392
A.D.,
Emphttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ceror
Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the Empire and outlawed all
other religions.
??Christianity thus had changed from an object of oppression to the State religion
of the Empire.
IV. Some Factors for Christianity’s Triumph(获得胜利)★ ★ ★
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??Christianity emerged out of the Roman Empire. Since it was only one among many
oriental mystery cults that sprang up in the East, how could it outstrip its rivals
and the dominant religion in the Empire?
??i. Roman toleration
??ii. While intellectual philosophies of the Hellenistic world had a cold,
intellectual appeal and did not involve the emotions of the people, Christianity
offered consolation and hope for a better life, hence, appealing to the distressed
masses.
??iii. The Roman rulers saw that Christianity could contribute to the consolidation
of the Empire as well as moral solidarity. (团结)
??
://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1crV. Schism （ 基 督教 内分 裂） in
Christianity
i. The Roman Catholic: )天主教的)
??The Roman Catholic is the successor of the church established in Rome soon after
Christ's death.
??It traces its spiritual history to the early disciples of Jesus.
The Pope, or spiritual leader, traces his office's lineage back to St. Peter, the
first Pope, one of Jesus' disciples.
??Roman Catholicism was originally predominately practiced in Ireland, Poland,
France and Spain ii. Eastern Orthodox
??Eastern Orthodox: During the fourth century, due to the division of the Roman Empire
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into western and eastern components, the Roman Catholic church split and the Eastern
Orthodox branch was formed.
??The two churches became officially separate in 1054. Orthodoxy is common in Russia,
Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, the Ukraine, and Armenia
iii. Protestantism 新教
??The
Protestant
branch
split
from
Roman
Catholicism
duhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cring the Reformation, a
sixteenth and seventeenth century series of church reforms in doctrine and practice.
This movement challenged the authority of the Pope, and became popular in Scandinavia,
England, and the Netherlands.
??Protestantism eventually divided into many denominations which arose in response
to disputes over doctrine, theology, or religious practice. Some of the large
denominations today are Lutherans, Methodists and Baptists.
VI. A New Mode of Christian life After Persecution
??With the end of persecution there emerges a new type of Christian leader and a new
mode of Christian life. The kudos that had formerly gone to the martyr-saints were
transferred to the hermits and monks, who, having withdrawn to the solitude of the
desert or wilderness, had succeeded in conquering the temptations of the world, the
flesh, and the devil by self-imposed austerities and constant prayer.
??This ihttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cs the beginning of
monasticism.
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Monasticism: 96-8 ★ ★ ★（修道院制度）
??Origin of Monasticism:
??It had started in the third century in the eastern Mediterranean region as a movement
of individuals in flight from the corruption of the cities to the peace of the desert.
The large number who desired to emulate these first hermits necessitated the
organization of communities in order to maintain discipline.
??Monks and nuns lived in communities apart from the world, but they prayed together
and practiced the Christian virtues of love, humility, and obedience in their
relations with one another.
??The monastery is a school for the teaching of the true Christian life. The Christian
monks did a lot to help preserve and transmit a large part of the traditional heritage
of the western culture. ??St. Benedict & The Benedictine Rule (本笃会戒律, founded
about 529 A.D.) :
??The monks devoted http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cto the
monastic life had to give up the pleasures and pains of sexual love, taking a vow
of chastity before entering the community. He was to have no personal property, not
so much as a knife or pen, and he was to obey the abbot and senior brothers in all
humility. Eating and sleeping were restricted to limits balanced between the body's
subordination to the spirit and its natural animal needs. The monk was to divide his
time among prayer, labor for the community, study and meditation（沉思, 冥想）. The
monastery became his home and his family, and he was not to leave except on permission
or order of the abbot.
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5. The New Testament: 77 ★
??Jesus had left no written records.
??Notable components of the New Testament include:
??i. Four Gospels by Jesus’ early followers:
??
Matthew《马太福音》
??
Mark《马可福音》
??
Luke
??
John《约翰福音》
《路加福音》
://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c → They deal with the birth,
teaching, death and Resurrection of Jesus.
??ii. The Acts of the Apostles (《使徒行传》)， a history of the early Christian
movement; ??iii. The Epistles, or Letters to Romans (《罗马书》)
??iv. The Book of Revelation （《启示录》）， a visionary account of the final triumph
of God’s purpose.
7. The Translation of the Bible:86-9
??The influence of the Bible:
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??It is more than a religious book, for it reflects most extensively western ideas
and culture.
??As it were, it left an enormous influence on the human race, especially in aspects
of religious beliefs, language and literature.
??As for its contributions to literature, refer to p. 89.
Lecture Four
The Middle Ages
1. A General Survey of the Middle Ages
(1). The Definition of Middle Ages: 91★ ★ ★
??Middle
Ages:
The
period
in
European
history
between
the
chttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1collapse of Rome and the
Renaissance, from 476 CE to about 1450. It is so called because it came between ancient
times and modern times.
??It is also known as the medieval period, and as the Dark Ages. As during the Middle
times there was no central government to keep the order, and the Christian church
shaped people’s ideas and lives by taking the lead in politics, law, art, and learning
of Europe, it is also called ―Age of Faith.‖
Organization of Church: 95-6
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??Pope of the Roman Catholic Church 罗马教皇、教宗
??↓
??Archbishops 大主教、红衣主教（province ）
??↓
??Bishops 主教（主教管区 diocese）
??↓
??Priests 牧师、教士（堂区 parish， part of a diocese）
??↓
??Lay member of church 非神职人员
(2). Emergence of Nations in Middle Ages
??Qin & Han dynasties →the Huns westward→ barbarian Germanic tribes, such as the
Angles,
Saxons,
Franks,
Visigoths
and
Vandals,
crossehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cd the Danube river into
the territory of the Roman Empire →establishment of many Germanic kingdoms, which
developed into nations as England, France, Spain, Italy, and Germany.
??Between 5-11 centuries, Europe suffered frequent wars and invasions. Political
unity (that of Roman Empire) gave way to widespread destruction and confusion. There
was no central government, and it was Christian church that seemed to unite Europe
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and kept the order.
(3). New Institutions of Europe ★ ★ ★
??In the isolation and chaos of the 9th and 10th centuries, European leaders no longer
attempted to restore Roman institutions, but adopted whatever would work. The result
was that Europe developed a relatively new and effective set of institutions. The
most well-known of the institutions were manorialism (the organization of the
peasants 庄园制度), monasticism (the organization of the churchmen 修道院制度), and
feudalism
(the
institution
of
thhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ce aristocracy 封建制度).
2. Feudalism ★ ★ ★
??The term "feudalism‖ derives from the Latin ―feudum,‖ a grant of land.‖
(1). Why did feudalism become a necessity?
Feudalism came to be initially a system of local defense against the constant dangers
and uncertainties of a rather primitive existence in northern Europe after the
relative order of the Roman Empire disappeared.
(2). Three elements of feudalism : 92-4 ★ ★ ★
??Feudalism is defined by three elements that existed and characterized the medieval
period: lords (封建领主), vassals (封臣) and fiefs (封地, 采邑).
??A lord was a noble who owned land. A vassal was given land by the lord. The land
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was known as a fief. In exchange for the fief, the vassal would provide military
service to the lord. The obligations and relations between lord, vassal and fief form
the basis of feudalism.
Further
reading:
meaning
of ―fief‖://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cpar
It came from the German vieh, or "cow," the measure of wealth among the early Germans,
a term that gave rise to the medieval word fief. "Fief" simply meant "something of
value." In the agricultural world of the time, "something of value" was usually land.
But the sixteenth-century lawyers pictured this land as having been under the control
of a powerful king who distributed much of it to his followers
Further reading: how did feudalism begin?
??As the northern tribes migrated into Europe, each man wanted to have his own land
and used whatever force was necessary to obtain it. The strongest of these men made
himself king and took the largest portion of the land he had conquered. The remaining
land was divided among his chief followers, with the condition that they pay him taxes
and fight for him. In turn, these men divided the land they had been given by the
king
among
other
men
with
the
theyhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c
same
had
agreed
conditions
to.
The
dividing continued down to the smallest landholder.
??As a result, every man (except the king) owed something to a stronger man. The
stronger man was the lord, and the weaker man was his vassal. The lord might also
be the vassal of a yet more powerful lord.
Further reading: Who first began this practice?
??It was Charles Martel(715-741, 查理·马特奥斯特亚）, a Frankish ruler, who first
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started granting estates (fiefs) for military service in the eighth century. He had
a good reason:
??Europe was being invaded by a large Muslim army which came up from Spain. Martel
could
not have gathered a strong enough fighting force without giving the fighters (vassals)
something substantial in exchange for their service. That was land or the right to
use land for their own purposes. ??Charlemagne, grandson of Charles Martel,
stronger
and
more
powerful
ruler.
He
was
able
to
field
was a
armies
http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cstrong enough to conquer most
of central Europe. But his army was an army of foot soldiers, who were really farmers
and herdsmen most of the time. It was not a professional army in any sense of that
term.
??The extension of these two precedents led to the creation of a permanent fighting
force exclusively dedicated to military activity and nothing else.
(3). A conclusion of feudalism
??Feudalism was a medieval contractual relationship among the upper classes.
??It was further characterized by:
??i. the localization of political and economic power in the hands of lords and their
vassals;
??the exercise of that power from the base of castles, each of which dominated the
district in which it was situated.
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??This formed a pyramidal form of hierarchy, as illustrated below:
??king
??
vassal
vassal
http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c??
(lord)
(lord)
??vassal
vassal
vassal
vassal
3. Manorialism: 93-4 ★ ★ ★
(1). What is manorialism?
??Manorialism is the other side of the feudal coin, for it deals with the social and
economic relationships between the peasants and their lords (which feudalism does
not infer). In a sense, manorial agriculture is the economic base of feudalism.
??Manors usually had four parts to them: arable land, meadow land, waste land, and
the village. Each part had a specific purpose and none could be dispensed with if
the manor was to survive.
(2). Social classes within the manor
I. Lords: an aristocratic class
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??Rising in Europe in 8th, 9th and 10th centuries, the lords drew economic support
from manors by preempting rents and services from peasants. They had a right to the
producthttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cs from some part of
the land. They had certain strips of the best arable land set aside for the lord (i.e.
the lord‘s demesne). The lord also got dues 贡物 from the serfs: sheafs of grain
and other dues in kind (the lord got the best animal when the head of the family died,
for instance). He collected fees from the serfs for using his still 酒厂, wine press,
bake oven and other utilities. Fines were assessed by the manor court for various
infractions of custom and rules.
II. Peasant class
??The peasant class of medieval Europe can be classified into three groups: free men,
serfs (villeins 农奴), and cotters 农场雇工.
??Free men had certain fixed dues which they had to pay or deliver. Serfs had the
same dues, but also had to provide labor services for the lord on his land. Cotters
had no rights to arable land whatsoever. They worked for some sort of wage in kind.
??The
serfs
are
little
better
than
slaves,
for
thttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1chey need permission to marry
or move village and have to pay the lord for almost everything.
For instance, the
lord has the choice of their animals when the serfs die, and the serfs have to give
the lord a hen at Christmas and eggs at Easter.
Monor house of lords: the only house
made of stone in village
Further reading: Why did manorialism emerge in northern Europe?
??climate & topography
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??→ provided a fundamental distinction from the grape-olive-grain-complex of the
Mediterranean lands.
??agricultural techniques
??→ quite different in northern Europe from Mediterranean lands. An instance is the
moldboard plow. As distinguished from the scratch plow, it created a revolution in
agriculture: ??social adjustments
??→brought about by new agricultural techniques. Since it took 6 to 8 small oxen
to pull a moldboard plow, the pooling of resources became necessity. This led to
cooperathttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cive cultivation of
the soil. By 10th century most of Europe was divided into farming units known as
manors.
??In south of Europe, however, there was no comparable change in agriculture. (It
is no surprise that feudalism and manorialism never really developed in the south
of Europe, since they had to depend on the traditional olives and grapes)
III. Church
??The church played an important role in all this. The peasants had to pay tithes
(ththings) or harvest products to the church in order to maintain it. These tithes
(1/10th of total income) were collected by the parish priest or the lord's agent.
(1). Who are knights?
??Knights are skilled horse soldiers who have been given their manors in return for
serving in the army.
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??But remember they are not born knights. They have to be trained in chivalry from
about the age of 7 when they become a page 侍童, at 14 he will become a Squire
(http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c 骑士扈从) and continue with
his education as a gentleman, learning about religion, and also learning how to fight
with lance and sword. A successful squire will be knighted by the Baron or even the
King in a ceremony where he swears to fight for God, his King and to be chivalrous
(2). The Code of Chivalry （骑士信条） ★ ★ ★
??The code of chivalry can be said to be a set of ideals and duties by which medieval
knights lived. Although throughout the Middle Ages the code kept changing to meet
new socio-economic realities, it maintained the essential quality of defending
'rightness' that ties the many images of what we call 'chivalry.'
Some components of the code
??Loyalty to country, King, honor, freedom, and the code of chivalry.
??Loyalty to one's friends and those who lay their trust in thee.
??Live one's life so that it is worthy of respect and honor.
??Never
attack
an
foe.http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c
??Never attack from behind.
??Avoid cheating.
unarmed
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??Exhibit self control.
??Respect women.
??Exhibit Courage in word and deed.
??Defend the weak and innocent.
??Fight with honor.
??Exhibit manners
(1). The romance
??"Romance" originally referred to the vernacular French language which was called
romanz (meaning that it was derived from the language spoken by the Romans, i.e. Latin).
Consequently, French and other languages derived from Latin, such as Spanish, Italian
and Portuguese, are still referred to as ―Romance languages" (or New Latin Languages)
today.
??Here Latin refers to the Vulgar Latin which evolved in different areas after the
break-up of the Roman Empire. This spoken Latin differed in pronunciation, vocabulary,
and grammar from classical Latin, a highly stylized and polished literary language
selectively
developed
from
http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cLatin,
early
i.e.
the
Latin
language of the Golden Age of Latin Literature (broadly the 1st Century B.C.),
possibly extending to the Silver Age (the first two centuries A.D. directly after
the Golden Age).
??In the 12th century, literature which was written down in the French vernacular
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was referred to as "romance" to distinguish it from "real" literature, which was
invariably written in Latin.
??Gradually, the term "romance" began to refer to the specific sort of narrative
literature that was most popular among the French-speaking court audiences of France
and Anglo-Norman
England.
??They told stories of the chivalric adventures of knights and their ladies, often
set at the court of King Arthur. The audience for these early vernacular narratives
was largely made up of women--the queen, duchess or countess and the other ladies
of her court. These women naturally tended to be interested in stories in
whichttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ch women played central
roles.
(2). Courtly love ★ ★ ★
I. What is courtly love?
??Courtly or Chivalric Love, most often depicted in romances, was typically between
knights and married ladies who were usually older and of higher social status. It
originated with the so-called troubadours of the late eleventh century, which wrote
almost entirely about sexual love.
??Then the Cult of the Virgin Mary got mixed in the courtly love a bit later.
??The ―courtly love" relationship is modeled on the feudal relationship between a
knight and his liege lord. The knight serves his courtly lady with the same obedience
and loyalty which he owes to his liege lord. She is in complete control of the love
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relationship, while he owes her obedience and submission.
II. Five main attributes that characterize courtly love
??In essence, the courtly love relationship was:
??i. Arhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cistocratic:
??As its name implies, courtly love was practiced by noble lords and ladies; its proper
milieu was the royal palace or court.
??ii. Ritualistic:
??The lady was wooed according to elaborate conventions of etiquette (cf. "courtship"
and "courtesy") and was the constant recipient of songs, poems, bouquets, sweet favors,
and ceremonial gestures. For all these gentle and painstaking attentions on the part
of her lover, she need only return a short hint of approval, a mere shadow of affection.
After all, she was the exalted domina--the commanding "mistress" of the affair; he
was but her servus--a lowly but faithful servant.
??iii. Secret:
??Courtly lovers were pledged to strict secrecy.
??iv. Adulterous:
??Courtly love was extramarital. Indeed one of its principle attractions was that
it offered an escape from the dull routines and boring confinements of noble
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marrihttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cage
(which
was
typically based on practical and dynastic concerns rather than on love).
??v. Literary:
??Before it established itself as a popular real-life activity, courtly love first
gained attention as a subject and theme in imaginative literature. Ardent knights,
that is to say, and their passionately adored ladies were already popular figures
in song and fable before they began spawning a host of real-life imitators in the
palace halls and boudoirs of medieval Europe.
III. Three unique aspects of courtly love
??i. The ennobling force of human love
??Troubadour love poetry, although conceptually adulterous, inspired the man (and
perhaps the woman) and ennobled the lover's character. The knight's love for the lady
inspires him to do great deeds, in order to be worthy of her love or to win her favor.
??This
power
of
transformation,
of
ennobling
the
character
of
the
lhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cover, is the distinguishing
characteristic of Courtly Love. Courtly love is something entirely new in Europe,
and the major source of our modern ideas about romantic love.
??ii. The elevation of the beloved above the lover
??iii. Love as ever unsatisfied, ever increasing desire
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??
Further reading: Andrew the Chaplain – the code of Courtly Love
??Marie, Countess of Champagne (香巴尼), had Andrew the Chaplain, a cleric at the
Court of Poitiers (波瓦第尔), write a formal code of love which would instruct people
in the proper behavior of lovers as part of her attempts to civilize Poitiers. There
are a total of 31 "rules." Such as:
How Love May be Retained
??Keep it secret
??Be wise and restrained in conduct
??Be generous and charitable
??Be humble, not proud
??Offer service to all ladies
??Do what is pleasing to your loved one
??http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cAssociate with good men;
avoid the wicked
??Jealousy increases love
??→The Middle Ages, like today, had every variety of love, from the sacred to the
profane. Further reading: Andrew’s rules of love applied to Boccaccio’s
DECAMERON
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??Frederigo, a young gentleman, fell in love with Monna Giovanna, a beautiful,
charming, married Florentine lady.
??Rule 1: Marriage is no real excuse for not loving
??Frederigo spent all his money on tournaments, jousting, hosting feasts and other
extravagances, to win Monna Giovanna's love."
??Rule 10: Love is always a stranger in the home of avarice
??Rule 14: The easy attainment of love makes it of little value; difficulty of
attainment makes it prized.
??She did not care for him or his spendthrift ways. He lost his wealth, retaining
only one little farm and one falcon, "among the best in the world."
??Monna's husband diehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cd→ she
and her son →living a year in
the country near Frederigo's farm.
??The son & Frederigo & his falcon.
??The son fell very ill and asked his mother to get Frederigo's falcon for him, which
he thought would surely make him get well. She hated to ask Frederigo for his last
dear possession, but fear for her son's health led her to do it.
??She visited Frederigo's farm and told him that,
to compensate him for the harm
he had suffered on her account, she intended to dine with him
that very day.
??He was super-courteous, and invited her to wait in the garden. There was no food
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in his house, so he killed the falcon to make a meal.
??Rule 24: Every act of a lover ends in the thought of his beloved.
??Rule 25: A true lover considers nothing good except what he thinks will please his
beloved.
??Rule 26: Love can deny nothing to love.
??They
ate
and
then
she
explainhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ced about her sick son
and requested the falcon. Frederigo wept and revealed the truth. She praised his
gracious spirit but reproached his killing the falcon for her meal. She went home;
her son died a few days later.
??Eventually, her brothers wanted her to remarry, since she was young and rich; she
said she would only marry Frederigo, which she did, and he was more prudent after
that.
Frederigo and Monna Giovanna as Courtly Lovers
??love from a distance;
??love for an unattainable married lady;
??the lover gives up his all for love;
??the lover receives the final reward of the lady for such great courtesy
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IV. A summary on courtly love
i. The "courtly love" relationship typically was not between husband and wife, not
because the poets and the audience were inherently immoral, but because it was an
idealized
sort
of
relationship
that
could
not
exist
withttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1chin the context of "real
life" medieval marriages. In the middle ages, marriages amongst the nobility were
typically based on practical and dynastic concerns rather than on love.
ii. Courtly love relationship, as it were, challenged and sought to redefine
traditional Christian ideals of love, marriage, manhood, virtue, and femininity.
Further reading: traditional Christian ideas of love & women in medieval times
i. Love:
??Neither the Greeks nor the Romans thought that passionate love between the sexes
could improve or transform the lovers. Rather, they thought of passionate love as
either a punishment inflicted on men by the Gods, akin to madness, or as mere sensual
gratification, not to be taken very seriously.
??While antiquity did not approve of passionate love between the sexes, Christianity
absolutely deplored it:
??Even
passionate
love
between
spouses
considehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cred
was
theologically
sinful, if unavoidable, until the thirteenth century when the Church began to modify
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its attitudes on this issue.
ii. Christian idea of womanhood: Eve/Mary dualism
??i. Misogynic position (the traditional church position, often expressed in medieval
literature): ??women were inferior: from Adam's rib
??women were sinful: story of the Fall
??ii. Cult of Mary:
??However, Mary, with her holiness and ideal embodiment of ideal feminine traits,
plays an important role in improving the images of medieval womanhood. The exaltation
of the beatified Virgin Mary climaxed in the Marian cult or cult of the Virgin Mary,
which influenced the literature, music and art of the high and late Middle Ages.
??This Eve/Mary dualism allowed and even encouraged conflicting attitudes toward
medieval women:
??At
the
same
time
that
people
were
praying
to
the
Virgin
salvatihttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1con,
Mary
they
for
were
condemning Eve for the Fall of Man. This dualistic religious attitude towards women
offers us some insight into the curious mixture of love and religion, sex and purity
we find in the courtly love poetry and stories of the Middle Ages.
??In a word, when a medieval passionate lover obediently subjects himself to the will
of his beloved lady, he grants her a status which women did not enjoy either in
Antiquity or in the Middle Ages.
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6. Carolingian Renaissance: 101
??Charlemagne (742-814) was the most important figure of the early medieval period,
who temporarily restored order in western and central Europe. As he wanted to rule
as the emperors of Rome had done, he was eventually crowned ―Emperor of the Romans‖
by the Pope in 800.
??Charlemagne encouraged interest in the Christian religion, and ancient learning
by,
for
example,
setting
up
monastery
schools,
giving
support
to
shttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ccholars and setting scribes
to work copying various ancient books. The result of Charlemagne’s efforts is usually
called ―Carolingian Renaissance,‖
with the term ―Carolingian‖ derived from
Charlemagne’s name in Latin, Carolus.
??The most interesting facet of this rather minor renaissance is the spectacle of
Frankish or Germanic state reaching out to assimilate the riches of the Roman
Classical and the Christianized Hebraic culture.
7. Scholasticism （经院哲学）
(1) What is scholasticism?
??Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus which means ―that [which]
belongs to the school‖. It is not a philosophy or a set of beliefs, but a method,
or technique, of teaching and learning created by late 11th Century medieval scholars
and theologians. Scholasticism was significant because it was possible to determine
the answer to a question through one's own reason, in contrast to the prevailing method
ofhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c
monasticsm
(monastic
learning) which found authority purely through what was written in ancient
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manuscripts, but not through one's own reasoning.
??There were numerous scholastic philosophies in the Middle Ages, but basic to all
scholastic thought was the conjunction of faith and reason. For the greatest of the
scholastics, this meant the use of reason to deepen the understanding of what is
believed on faith and ultimately to give a rational content to faith.
（2 ）Some important questions for scholasticism
I. the existence of God
?? St. Anselm in the late 11th cent. took as his life’s motto ―faith seeking
understanding‖(―为了理解而信仰‖——―我们决不是理解了才能信仰，而是信仰了才能
理解。‖) and sought to use reason to illuminate the content of belief.
??An example of this is his famous ontological proof of the existence of God.
Anselm’s ontological argument
??i.
In
order
to
affirm
or
deny
anythhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cing about god, we must
first form in our minds the appropriate concept, namely the concept of ―that than
which nothing greater can be conceived‖ (―在一切可能想像中之最伟大(最完满)的存
在"). Having done so, we have in mind the idea of God.
??But of course God does not necessarily exist in reality, since we often think about
things that do ??ii. Suppose the alternative: If ―that than which nothing greater‖
can be conceived existed only in my mind and not in reality, then I could easily think
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of something else which would in fact be greater than this (namely, the same thing
existing in reality as well as in my mind), so that what I originally contemplated
turns out not in fact to be that than which nothing greater can be conceived.
??→This
is a contradiction, only a fool would believe it. So that than which nothing greater
can be conceived (that is, God) must exist in reality as well as in the mind.
Kant’s
criticism
of
Anselm’s
ontologihttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1ccal argument
Kant’s criticism of Anselm’s ontological argument is to the point. In his
words, ―existence‖ (namely, existing both in the mind and reality) is not an
attribute. We can imagine God having the greatest attributes, yet this doesn’t mean
it does not necessarily follow that God really exists in reality. For instance, I
can imagine that there are fifty dollars in my pocket, but this does not mean that
these dollars really exist in my pocket.
II. The problem of universals
??One of the issues that most plagued scholastic philosophers during this period was
the problem of universals.
??Realists (唯实论者), following in the tradition of Plato, maintained that each
universal is an entity in its own right, existing independently of the individual
things that happen to participate in it. Nominalists（唯名论者）, on the other hand,
pursuing
a
view
nearer
that
of
Aristotle,
held
particulahttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cr
that
things
only
exist,
since the universal is nothing more than a name that applies to certain individual
substances.
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(3) Scholastic method: further reading
??I. To discover disagreement and contention among reading sources
??The scholastics would choose a book by a renowned scholar, called auctor （作品
的創作者或創始者→authority） , as a subject of investigation, for example the Bible.
By reading the book thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate
the theories of the auctor. Then other documents related to the source document would
be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters, anything written on the subject
be it ancient text or contemporary. The points of disagreement and contention between
these multiple sources would be written down and looked at from all sides with an
open mind.
??II. To prove the two sides of an argument were in agreement and not contradictory
through
a
http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cseries
of
dialectics. This was done in two ways:
??i. philoloigical analysis:
??Words were examined and it would be argued they could have more than one meaning,
that the author could have meant the word to mean something else. Ambiguity in words
could be used to find common ground between two otherwise contradictory statements.
??ii. logical analysis:
??The scholastics relied on the rules of formal logic to show contradictions did not
exist, but were subjective to the reader.
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(4) Scholastic school: further reading
??Scholastic schools had two methods of teaching:
??I. the lectio (诵读圣言, 经文评注) . A teacher would read a text, expounding on
certain words or ideas, but no questions were allowed. It was a simple reading of
a text, the instructors explained, and silence for the students
II.
the disputatio (disputation 辩论)
??There
were
two
types
of
dhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cisputatio's:
??i. "ordinary"
disputatio (通常的辩论) :
??The question to be disputed was announced beforehand.
??ii. the quodlibetal
（随意性辩论） :
??The students would pop the question to the teacher without any prior preparation.
The teacher would then have to come up with a response. Such as "Is it ok to steal?"
The teacher would then cite from authoritative texts such as the Bible and prove his
position. Students would then rebut the response and this would go back and forth
often digressing into unruly affairs. During this haphazard exercise someone would
be keeping notes on what was said, the teacher would then summarize the arguments
from the notes and present his final position the next day answering all the rebuttals
in a final answer.
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8. Literature: 105
(1) National epics: 105
I. Definition of national epic:
??The
epic
written
in
languageshttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c,
vernacular
namely,
the
languages of various national states that came into being in the Middle Ages. It was
the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture
to a culture that was the combination of a variety of national characteristics.
II. Famous national epics:
??i. Beowulf, an Anglo-Saxon epic: 105
??ii. Song of Roland, French epic
(2) Dante Alighieri & The Divine Comedy
Dante shown holding a copy of The Divine Comedy, next to the entrance to Hell, the
seven terraces of Mount Purgatory and the city of Florence, in a fresco.
I. Significance of The Divine Comedy: 118
??Written between 1308 and his death in 1321, The Divine Comedy is widely considered
the greatest epic of Latin literature, and one of the greatest of western literature
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(in parallell with Homeric Epics, Shakespeare’s Hamlet, and Goethe’s Faust). Its
influence
is
so
great
that
ahttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cffects the Christian
it
view
of the afterlife to this day.
??While the poem itself is a Christian poem with a profound vision of the medieval
Christian world, it also expresses humanistic ideas which foreshadowed the spirit
Renaissance.
II. Structure and story of The Divine Comedy
??The Divine Comedy is composed of three parts:
?? Inferno (Hell), Purgatorio (Purgatory), and Paradiso (Paradise)
??The poet tells in the first person his travel through the three realms of the dead.
His guide through Hell and Purgatory is the Latin poet Virgil, author of The Aeneid,
and the guide through Paradise is Beatrice, Dante's ideal of a perfect woman.We may
say that Virgil and Beatrice respectively represents wisdom and love which are able
to lead one to paradise
The nine circles of Hell:
??The circles are concentric, each new one representing further and further evil,
culminating in thehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c center of
the earth, where Satan is held, bound. Each circle's sin is punished in an
appropriately revengeful way to fit the crime.
?? The nine circles of Hell (九圈地狱) :
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??Circle 1. Limbo:
??The unbaptized and virtuous pagans, who, though not sinful, did not accept Christ,
namely, such poets, pilosophers and scientists in ancient Greece and Rome as Homer,
Plato and Aristotle. They are not punished in an active sense, but are merely unable
to reach Heaven and denied God's presence for eternity.
??→ Dante put these people in circle 1 because he had to agree with the dominant
Christian notion that anyone who didn’t believe in Christianity would go to hell
after death, but their freedom from any punishment shows Dante’s admiration of
wisdom.
??Circle 2:
??Those overcome by lust ( 好色之 徒 ), trapped in a violent storm. For example,
Archilles, Paris, Hellen, Cleopatra.
??→ As a Chrihttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cstian himself,
Dante had to put such people in the hell and let them suffer so as to agree with the
Christian notion that appetites or physical pleasures should be disciplined, but as
a man Dante shows a deep sympathy for them.
??Circle 3:
??Gluttons (饕餮者，暴食者 ) face-down in the mud and gnawed apart by Cerberus, the
dog monster in the hell.
??→ Cf. the Christian emphasis on simple, moderate life. For them, the wine they
drink is the blood of Jesus, and the bread they eat is the meat of Jesus. This is
why they feel obliged to pray to God for granting them food.
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??Circle 4:
??The greedy (who hoarded possessions), and the indulgent (who squandered them),
forced to push giant rocks in opposite directions.
??→ For the Christians, grudging and wasting possessions are equally sinful.
??Circle 5:
??The wrathful (动辄发怒者), fighting each other in the swamp-like water of the
rhttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1civer Styx, and the slothful,
trapped beneath the water.
??→ Christianity emphasizes moderation or self-discipline of emotions, passions,
as well as appetites. So, becoming wrathful is a sign of evil desire.
??Circle 6:
??Heretics （邪教徒）, trapped in flaming tombs.
??Circle 7:
??The violent (暴虐者）, including the violent against people and property (in a river
of boiling blood), the violent against themselves—suicides (turned into thorny black
trees), the violent against God, art, and nature—blasphemers, sodomites, and usurers
（in a desert where fire rains from the sky).
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The last two circles of Hell punish sins of malice, or sins of the intellect; that
is, sins involving conscious fraud or treachery, and can only be reached by descending
a vast cliff into the "pit" of Hell:
??Circle 8：
??The fraudulent ( 欺 诈 者 )— those guilty of deliberate, knowing evil. They
include:://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1car
??Panderers and seducers （诱奸者）, running forever in opposite directions, whipped
by demons;
??Flatterers （阿谀奉承者）, steeped in human excrement;
??Those who committed simony (买卖圣职罪), placed head-first in holes, flames burning
on the soles of their feet;
??Sorcerers and false prophets （伪先知）, their heads twisted so they can only see
what is behind them;
??Corrupt politicians （腐败政客）, trapped in a river of burning pitch;
??Hypocrites （伪善者） made to wear brightly painted lead cloaks;
??Thieves （偷盗者）, chased by venomous snakes;
??Fraudulent advisors （恶谋者）, trapped in flames:
??Sowers of discord （挑拨离间者）, whose bodies are ripped apart, then heal, only
to be attacked again;
??Falsifiers （ 作 假 者 ） , i.e. alchemists, counterfeiters, perjurers, and
impersonators. Each group is punished by being afflicted with a different type of
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disease.
ii. Purgatorio
://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1cr??Having survived the depths of
Hell, Dante and Virgil then ascend out of the undergloom, to the Mountain of Purgatory,
where those whose sins were not to the point of going to hell purified
themselves for ascending to the Paradise.
Seven terraces of Purgatory （七层炼狱）：
??Terrace 1: Pride, by carrying a heavy weight tied around the neck that disables
the wearer from standing up straight.
??Terrace 2: Envy, by having one's eyes sewn shut, and wearing clothing that makes
the soul indistinguishable from the ground.
??Terrace 3: Wrath, by walking around in acrid smoke.
??Terrace 4: Sloth, by continually running.
??Terrace 5: Avarice, by lying face-down on the ground.
??Terrace 6: Gluttony, by abstaining from any food or drink.
??Terrace 7: Lust, by burning in an immense wall of flames
Paradiso
??The
ascension
of
terraces
culminates
at
the
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http://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1csummit, which is the Garden
of Eden. Virgil, as a pagan, is a permanent denizen of Limbo, the first circle of
Hell; thus, he may not enter Paradise. Beatrice then becomes the second guide
??the nine spheres of Heaven (九重天):
??Sphere 1: Moon （月球 天） - Faithfulness marred by inconstancy; those who abandoned
their vows （正人君子）.
??Sphere 2: Mercury （水星天）- Service marred by ambition; those who did good out
of a desire for fame （力行善事者）.
??Sphere 3: Venus （金星天） - Love marred by wantonness; those who did good out of
love （博爱者）.
??Sphere 4: Sun （太阳天） -
Wisdom; Theologians （先知）.
??Sphere 5: Mars （火星天） - Courage; the martyrs, warriors, and confessors（殉
道者）. ??Sphere 6: Jupiter （木星天）- Justice; Rulers（英明君主）.
??Sphere 7: Saturn
（土星天）- Temperance; monks and hermits （修道士）.
??Sphere 8: The Stars （ 恒 星 天 ） - the apostles and saints （ 耶 稣 与 其 众 弟
子
）
.
??Sphere
9:
The
Prime
Mover
（
原
动
天
）
–
angelshttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1c （众天使）.
???The Empyrean (最高天): the Holy Trinity, the Virgin, the Angels and the Saints
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(3) Geoffrey Chaucer 乔叟，杰弗里& The Canterbury Tales（坎特伯雷故事集）
??Chaucer (1340-1400): An English poet, he is regarded as the first short story teller
and the first modern poet in English literature.
乔叟，杰弗里：(1340?-1400) 英国诗人，被认为是中世纪英国最伟大的文学家。他的作品包
括公爵夫人之书 （1369 年）， 特洛伊拉斯和克莱希斯 （C.1385 年）以及他的杰作 坎特伯
雷故事集 (1387-1400 年）
??One of his major contribution is that he wrote his works mostly in the dialect used
by common Londoners instead of in Latin or French (We must remember that after the
Norman conquest in 1066, for a long time the scholars wrote in Latin, and the courtier
in French, while the common people spoke old English, namely, the Anglo-Saxon. For
example, the commoners used ―calf,‖ ―swine,‖ and ―sheep‖ for the animals they
tended, while the Norman lords used ―veal,‖ ―pork,‖ and ―mutton‖ for the flesh
sehttp://www.51wendang.com/doc/ef675f907044fd14d9053a1crved at their table). After
Chaucer’s efforts, Normans and English began to intermingle, thus creating what we
know as modern English.
??The Canterbury Tales, containing twenty four tales told by a group of pilgrims on
their journey to Canterbury, a famous Church,
was his most popular work for their
power of observation, piercing irony, sense of humor and warm humanity.
9.Art and Architecture
??Art in the Middle ages was inseparable from religion. It was infused with spiritual
symbolism and meaning.
??Art had a didactic as well as an artistic purpose in medieval times, because the
majority of people were unable to read.
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??The purpose of art was to awe and inspire the viewer with the grandeur of God. It
also served to symbolize what people believed. Pope Gregory the Great said, "painting
can do for the illiterate what writing does for those who read."
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