Download Unit 1- Basics of Anatomy Anatomy – (Greek – to cut up)

Unit 1- Basics of Anatomy
Anatomy – (Greek – to cut up) - the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another
• ____________ or macroscopic
• Microscopic
• Developmental
Physiology – (Greek – study of nature) - the study of the _________________________ of the body’s structural
machinery; explains physical & chemical processes that direct body activities
• Regional – all structures in one part of the body
(such as the abdomen or leg)
• Systemic – gross anatomy of the body studied by system
• Surface – study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin
Microscopic Anatomy
• Cytology – study of the cell
• Histology – study of ___________________
Developmental Anatomy
• Traces structural changes throughout life
• _______________________________ – study of developmental changes of the body before birth
Branches
• Pathological anatomy – study of structural changes caused by ___________________________
• Radiographic anatomy – study of internal structures visualized by specialized scanning procedures such as X-ray,
MRI, and CT scans
• Molecular biology – study of anatomical structures at a subcellular level
Physiology
• Considers the operation of specific organ systems
• _______________ – kidney function
• Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous system
• Cardiovascular – operation of the heart and blood vessels
• Focuses on the functions of the body, often at the cellular or molecular level
• Understanding physiology also requires a knowledge of physics, which explains
• electrical currents
• blood ___________________________
• the way muscle uses bone for movement
Complementary
• Function always reflects _________________
• What a structure can do depends on its specific form
• Core theme - Structure (anatomy) determines what ______________________ (physiology) can take place; if
structure changes, the function must also change
Organization
1. Chemical – atoms combine to form molecules which combine to form cells
2. Cellular – smallest unit of life; human composed of 60-100 trillion cells; combine to form tissues
3. Tissue – groups of cells that perform a common function; four types = epithelial, connective, muscular, &
__________________________
4. Organ – composed of two or more tissue types that perform a specific function; most contain all 4 tissue types
5. Organ system – group of organs that cooperate to accomplish a common ___________________; ex. circulatory
system, digestive system, etc.
6. Organismal – highest level of structural organization; all systems of body working together
Necessary Life Functions
1. Maintaining boundaries – the internal environment remains distinct from the external environment
 Cellular level – accomplished by plasma membranes
 Organismal level – accomplished by the skin
2. ___________________________ – structure & functions is determined by genetics
3. Movement – locomotion, propulsion (peristalsis), blood, breathing, molecules, and contractility
4. Responsiveness – ability to monitor internal or external conditions and ______________ to changes
5. Digestion – breakdown of ingested foodstuffs; process by which complex substances are converted to simpler
forms so that they can be absorbed through intestinal wall & transported by blood
6. Metabolism – all the chemical reactions that occur in the body; releases energy, creates body heat, enables cells
to synthesize & secrete molecules
7. Excretion – removal of _____________ produced by metabolism
8. Reproduction – cellular and organismal levels
1. Cellular – an original cell divides and produces two identical daughter cells
2. Organismal – sperm and egg unite to make a whole new person
9. Growth – increase in size of a body part or of the organism
10. Differentiation – result in structurally and functionally ________________ organs
Nutrients – needed for energy and cell building
Oxygen – ________% of air; needed for release of energy during cellular respiration and for metabolic reactions
Water – min. 60% of body weight; provides the necessary environment for chemical reactions
Normal body temperature – necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates
Atmospheric pressure – required for proper breathing and ___________ exchange in the lungs
Homeostasis
• Homeostasis – ability to ________________________ a relatively stable internal environment in an everchanging outside world
• The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium
• Chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to maintain homeostasis; necessary for survival and good health;
its loss results in illness or disease
• Variables produce a change in the body
• The three interdependent components of control mechanisms:
• Receptor (sensor) – ___________________ to a stimuli (environmental change) by sending
information to the control center
• Control center – determines the set point at which the variable is maintained; usually consists of
brain, spinal cord, or endocrine gland; assesses multiple stimuli, determines deviations from
standard set points, and produces a response by increasing or decreasing the activity of the
effector
• Effector – muscles or glands; provides the means to ________________ to stimuli
Negative Feedback
• In negative feedback systems, the output shuts ___________ the original stimulus
• Most control systems involve negative feedback systems which act to reduce or stop the initial stimulus; ex.
maintenance of body temperature
- antagonistic actions – opposite actions, allow for fine tuning of homeostatic conditions
• Example: Regulation of room temperature
Positive Feedback
• In positive feedback systems, the output ______________________ or exaggerates the original stimulus
• Rare in humans; works against homeostasis
• Example: Regulation of blood clotting
• Ex. Oxytocin during ________________ stimulated by pressure on cervix; causes greater uterine contractions &
more pressure on cervix
Homeostatic Imbalance
• Disturbance of homeostasis or the body’s normal equilibrium
• Overwhelming the usual negative feedback mechanisms allows destructive
_________________________feedback mechanisms to take over
Directional Terms
• Superior and inferior – _________________ and away from the head, respectively
• Anterior and posterior – toward the ______________ and back of the body
• Medial, lateral, and intermediate – toward the midline, away from the midline, and between a more medial and
lateral structure
• Proximal and distal – closer to and farther from the ___________________ of the body part
• Superficial and deep – toward and away from the body surface
• The thorax is
____________________ to the abdomen.
• The kidneys are ______________________
to the intestine.
• The navel is on the ______________________
side of the body.
• The legs are __________________________
to the trunk.
• The heart is ___________________________
to the lungs.
• The skin is _______________________
to the muscles.
• The ears are__________________________
to the nose.
• The knee is ________________________
to the foot.
• The brain is ______________________
to the cranium.
• The hand is _______________________
to the elbow.
Anatomical postion =
•
Body erect, feet parallel, eyes forward, arms at side, palms ____________________, fingers downward
Body Regions
1. Head – facial and cranial regions
2. Neck – _______________________ region
3. Trunk (torso) – thorax and abdomen
4. Upper extremity – shoulder, arm, hand
5. Lower extremity – hip, leg, foot
Body Planes
• Sagittal – divides the body into __________________ and _______________ parts
• Midsagittal or medial – sagittal plane that lies on the ______________________
• Frontal or coronal – divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
• Transverse or horizontal (cross section) – divides the body into superior and inferior parts
• Oblique section – cuts made diagonally
• Body Planes – cuts to view internal structures
2 Principle Body cavities –internal cavities that confine organs that have related functions
1. Dorsal (posterior) cavity protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions
2.
3.
4.
5.
 _______________ cavity – within the skull; encases the brain
 Vertebral cavity – runs within the vertebral column; encases the spinal cord
_____________ (anterior) cavity houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions
 Thoracic - chest cavity; includes mediastinum, pleural & pericardial cavities
 Abdominopelvic - may be divided into abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity
Thoracic cavity is subdivided into two pleural cavities, the mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity
1. Pleural cavities – each houses a ____________________
2. Mediastinum – contains the pericardial cavity; surrounds the remaining thoracic organs
3. Pericardial cavity – encloses the _______________
The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the dome-shaped
___________________________
It is composed of two subdivisions
1. Abdominal cavity – contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
2. Pelvic cavity – lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
1. Body membranes – thin layers of connective and epithelial tissue that cover, separate, and support viscera and
line body cavities
2. Mucous membranes – secrete thick liquid substance called mucus; lubricates or protects organs; lines cavities
that _______________ or ___________________ the body
3. Serous membranes – line thoracic and adominopelvic cavities and cover visceral organs; secrete watery serous
fluid; include: pleurae (lung), pericardial (heart) membrane, and peritoneal (abdominal) membranes
Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
 Parietal serosa lines internal body walls
 Visceral serosa covers the internal _________________
 Serous fluid separates the serosae
Other Cavities
• Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the digestive organs
• Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose
• _______________________ – house the eyes
• Middle ear – contains bones (ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations
• Synovial – joint cavities
Clinical Procedures
1. Inspection – observing body for swelling, rashes, needle marks, irregular breathing, etc.
2. Palpation – applying fingers with firm __________________________ to surface of body to feel lumps, tender
spots, body landmarks, etc.
3. Percussion – tapping sharply on body walls to detect vibrations; used to locate excess fluid or organ
abnormalities
4. Auscultation – listening to _____________________ of various organs; breathing, heartbeat, etc.
5. Reflex testing – observing automatic response to stimulus