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General Medicine
Required knowledge extent for the exam in histology and embryology
1. Cytology and general histology: The object and the significance of the histology.
Methods used in study of cells and tissues. Preparation of samples for histological
examination by light microscopy. Preparation of samples for examination by electron
microscopy.& Cell definition, its size, shape and viability. Plasma membrane, cell surfaces
and intercellular junctions. Structure and function of the nucleus. Structure and function of
cell organelles. Cell inclusions. The hyaloplasm (cytosol) and cytoskeleton. The cell cycle.
Cell growth, aging, and degeneration of cells. Mitosis. Meiosis. & Cell differentiation and
development of tissues. Definition of the tissue. The most important structural and
functional characteristics of the tissues. & Definition of the epithelial tissue. Classification
of epithelia. Covering epithelia (epithelial membrane) - classification and chief distribution.
The glandular epithelium -types of glands. Absorptive, respiratory and sensory epithelia. &
Structure, origin and types of the connective and supporting tissues. Ground substance and
fibers. Connective tissue proper - chief distribution, and function. Special connective
tissues - types, chief distribution, and function. Cartilage and bone tissue types, chief
distribution, and function. Ossification. Structure of joints. & Muscle tissue - characteristics
and classification. Smooth muscle tissue. Skeletal muscle tissue. Submicroscopic structure
of the muscle fiber, ultrastructure of myofibrils, definition of sarkomere. Mechanism of the
muscle contraction. Cardiac muscle tissue. & Nerve tissue - definition. Neurons - structure
and classification. Sheathes of nerve fibers, structure and function of the myelin sheath and
sheath of Schwann. Synapse, its structure and function, classification of synapses.
Neuroglial cells. & Composition of the human peripheral blood. Cytology of formed
elements of blood (erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes). Differential white cell count.
Prenatal and postnatal haemopoiesis. Microscopic structure of the bone marrow and its
classification. Development of blood cells.
2. Microscopic anatomy: Structure, function and types of the capillaries. Structure of the
arteries and veins. Structure of the heart. The lymphatic capillaries and vessels. Structure
and function of the thymus. The lymph node. Tonsils and lymph nodes in the wall of the
digestive tube (GALT) - structure and function. Structure of the spleen. Blood circulation of
the spleen. Mononuclear phagocytic system - composition, occurrence and function. &
Mucosa of the respiratory tract (nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses). Microscopic structure
of the larynx, epiglottis and trachea. Bronchi and lungs. The pulmonary lobules and alveoli
- structure and function. Blood circulation of lungs. Pleura. & General structure of the wall
of hollow (tubular) organs. Mucosa of the oral cavity - structure of the lip and cheeks.
Structure of the tongue, structure of the hard and soft palate. Structure of the tooth,
periodontium and alveolar process. Gingiva and gingivodental attachment. Structure and
function of the tonsils. Major and minor salivary glands, composition of saliva. Structure of
the pharynx, esophagus and stomach. Function of the gastric mucosa. Gastro-enteropancreatic system (GEP cells). Small intestine and large intestine. Structure of the intestinal
villus. Appendix vermiformis. Rectum and anus. Blood and nerve supply of the intestinal
wall. Structure and function of the liver. The liver lobule and blood circulation in the liver.
Intra- and extrahepatic bile ducts. The gallbladder. Structure and function of the pancreas.
& Structure and function of the hypophysis. Diencephalo-hypophyseal system, the
hypophyseal portal circulation. Structure of the pineal gland. Structure and function of the
thyroid and parathyroid glands. The adrenal gland. Paraganglia. The islets of Langerhans.
& Structure of the kidney, its blood circulation. Nephron - definition, its parts and
histotopography. Function of parts of the nephron. Juxtaglomerular apparatus. Intrarenal
excretory ducts. Structure of the renal pelvis, the ureter and the urinary bladder. The male
and female urethra. & Structure and function of the testis. Spermatogenesis and
spermiation. Structure of the spermatozoon. Composition of ejaculate. Structure of the
epididymis, ductus deferens and ductus ejaculatorius. The prostate gland and seminal
vesicles. Structure of the penis and mechanism of erection. & Structure and function of the
ovary. The follicular atresia. Ovarian cycle and its regulation. Corpus luteum - its
development, structure, degeneration and function. Structure of the oviduct (fallopian tube).
Structure of the uterus and and its blood supply. The endometrium and menstrual cycle.
Structure of the vagina and vaginal cytology. External genitalia. Placenta - structure and
function. Structure of the umbilical cord. & Structure of the skin - epidermis, dermis and
subcutaneous coat. Keratinisation of the epidermis. The accessory organs of the skin
(glands, hair, nail). The mammary gland. & Structure of the cerebral cortex (=cortex of the
telencephalon), isocortex and allocortex. Cyto- and myeloarchitecture. Structure of the
cerebellum. Synapses of the cerebellum. Structure of the spinal cord. Ependyma, choroid
plexus, meninges. Structure of ganglia and peripheral nerves. Autonomic nervous system.
& Structural components of the retina, the layers of the retina and interrelationships of the
neurons. The sclera and cornea. The choroid, ciliary body and iris. Refractile (dioptric)
media of the eye (cornea, aqueous humor, lens and vitreous body). The eyelid, lacrimal
apparatus, conjunctiva, extrinsic ocular muscles. Structure of external, middle and internal
ear (maculae staticae, cristae ampulares, ductus cochlearis, organon spirale Corti). Structure
of the organ of taste and the organ of smell.
3. General embryology: Gametogenesis. Oogenesis, structure of the oocyte during
ovulation. The ovarian and menstrual cycles - mutual correlations. Meiosis - the differences
between spermatogenesis and oogenesis. Composition of ejaculate, density (count) of
spermatozoa. Properties of the spermatozoa. & Fertilization and cleavage of the human
ovum. The morula and blastocyst. Implantation of the conceptus. Abnormal implantation
sites, tubal pregnancy. Changes in the blastocyst during implantation. Germ disc,
development of axial organs (formations). Development of notochord (= chorda dorsalis).
& Somites (somitomeres) - their development and differentiation. Intra- and
extraembryonic mesoderm. Origin of mesenchyma. & The germ disc and its differentiation.
Development of external appearance of the embryo and fetus. Development of limbs.
Human fetal membranes - amniotic sac, yolk sac, chorion, and decidua. Development of the
placenta and the umbilical cord. Blood circulation in the placenta. Anomalies of the
placenta and the umbilical cord. Placenta praevia, accreta, and increta. & Growth of
embryo in the uterus. Monthly position of the uterus during pregnancy. Presentation,
position and posture of fetus. Marks of mature and full-term fetus, the rule of Hasse.
Delivery of fetus. & Multiplied number of embryos: mono- and dizygotic twins and
triplets; frequency. Arrangement of fetal membranes in multiplets. & Congenital
malformations - critical periods of origin, main teratogens.
4. Special embryology: Development of the spine, the ribs and the sternum. Chorda
dorsalis. Development of the skull. Development of the skeletal and smooth muscle tissue.
Development of limbs. & Primitive blood circulation in the human embryo. Development
of the heart and formation of the cardiac septa and valves. The aortic arches (the branchial
arteries) and their derivatives. Overview of development of the inferior vena cava. Fetal
blood circulation. Congenital malformations of the heart and vessels. & Development of
the respiratory passages and lungs. Histogenesis of the lungs. & Development of the face
and cervical region of embryo including clefts (cheilo-, gnato-, palatoschisis). Development
of nasal and oral cavities and palate. Development of tooth, time-sequence of teething
(teeth eruption) of the deciduous (milk) and permanent teeth. Development of the tongue
and the thyroid gland. The branchial (pharyngeal) apparatus of embryo: pharyngeal arches,
pharyngeal clefts (branchial grooves) and pharyngeal pouches. Cervical cysts and fistulae.
& Development of the esophagus, stomach and intestine, development of the rectum.
Development of the liver, pancreas and spleen. & Pronephros and mesonephros, relations
of the mesonephros to development of efferent genital passages. Metanephros. Cloaca development of the urinary bladder and urogenital sinus. Overview of abnormities of the
urinary system. & Indifferent stage in development of the reproductive system.
Development of the testis and the ovary. Development of genital passages in males and
females. Development of external genital organs. Major congenital abnormities of the
reproductive system. & Development of the eye (the wall of eyeball, lens, vitreous body,
anterior and posterior chambers of eye). Development of the external, middle and internal
ear. & Development of endocrine glands. & Development of the skin and skin adnexal
organs. & Development of coelom. Development of diaphragm. & Early development of
nervous system - neural tube and its differentiation. Neural crest (crista neuralis) and its
differentiation. Development of the spinal cord and the brain - differentiation of primary
and secondary brain vesicles and ventricular system. Overview of developmental
malformations of the spinal cord and the brain.
5. Practical microscopy:
to describe electron micrographs illustrating basic cellular structures and compartments
to identify cca 70 slides (see enclosed List of slides)
List of slides for the practical microscopy
01. Labium oris (lip)
02. Apex linguae (top of tongue)
03. Papilla circumvallata
04. Tonsilla lingualis
05. Palatum molle
06. Tonsilla palatina
07. Tooth
08. Glandula parotis
09. Glandula submandibularis
10. Glandula sublingualis
11. Oesophagus
12. Cardia
13. Fundus ventriculi
14. Pylorus
15. Duodenum
16. Intestinum tenue
17. Intestinum crassum
18. Appendix
19. Hepar (liver)
20. Vesica fellea (gall bladder)
21. Pancreas
22. Epiglottis
23. Larynx
24. Trachea
25. Pulmo (lung)
26. Ren (kidney)
27. Urethra
28. Vesica urinalis (urinary bladder)
29. Testis
30. Epididymis
31. Funiculus spermaticus (spermatic cord)
32. Glandula vesiculosa (seminal vesicle)
33. Prostata
34. Penis
35. Ovarium, corpus luteum
36. Tuba uterina – ampulla
37. Tuba uterina – isthmus
38. Uterus – proliferative phase
39. Uterus – secretory phase
40. Vagina
41. Labium minus
42. Hypophysis cerebri
43. Epiphysis
44. Glandula thyreoidea
45. Glandula parathyreoidea
46. Corpus suprarenale
47. Thymus
48. Artery and vein
49. Aorta
50. Vena cava
51. Myocardium
52. Lymphonodus
53. Lien (spleen)
54. Skin from the top of finger
55. Skin from the axilla
56. Skin with hairs
57. Nail
58. Mamma non lactans
59. Mamma lactans
60. Cortex cerebri
61. Cerebellum
62. Medulla spinalis (spinal cord)
63. Ganglion
64. Peripheral nerve
65. Anterior segment of the eye
66. Posterior segment of the eye
67. Palpebra
68. Auricle
69. Umbilical cord
70. Placenta
Literature:
•Luis C. Junqueira, José Carneiro
BASIC HISTOLOGY (11th Edition) 2005
Format: Softcover with CDROM, 250 illus. , 502 pages.
ISBN: 0071440917
Product Line: McGraw-Hill/Appleton & Lange
(for information: http://www.mhprofessional.com/index.php or
http://www.mhprofessional.com/search/results.php?init=1&sort=relevance&search_terms=junqueira&x
=29&y=7
•K. L. Moore, T.V.N. Persaud
THE DEVELOPING HUMAN-Clinically oriented Embryology with STUDENT CONSULT Online
Access, 8th Edition, 2007 W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia Paperback, 536 pages, 500 Illustrations
ISBN -10: 1416037063, ISBN -13: 978-1416037064
http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/712494/description#description