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Epistemological Review
Social Cognitive Theory
By Douglas Valentine
INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND
Social Cognitive Theory is a very recognizable learning theory. It is one that most
of us have seen in use in the past and no doubt will use many times in the future.
In the timeline of learning theories, social cognitive theory follows the behaviorist
theories and expands upon them. According to Atkisson (2012), “Cognitivism was a
reaction to Behaviorism. It is the study of mental processes through the scientific method
and abstractions from behavior. Cognitivism employs mechanism and information
processing as the principle metaphors for interpreting findings”.
Neal E. Miller and John Dollard first proposed social cognitive theory as social
learning theory in 1941 (Culatta, 2011). “Their proposition posits that if humans were
motivated to learn a particular behavior that particular behavior would be learned through
clear observations. By imitating these observed actions the individual observer would
solidify that learned action and would be rewarded with positive reinforcement” (Culatta,
2011).
From the foundation Miller and Dollard’s work, Albert Bandura expanded the
theme and ideas to develop social cognitive theory. Bandura and his colleagues designed
a series of studies to help explain why children displayed aggressive behavior. The
studies “also indicated the importance of the learner's perceptions of the environment
generally, of the person modeling a behavior specifically, and of the learner's
expectations regarding the consequences of behavior. In doing so, findings from this
systematic research contradicted assumptions within behavioral models that learning was
the result of trial and error learning or that changes in behavior were due primarily to the
consequences of one's own actions” (Denler, Wolters, Benzon, 2014).
THEORY EPISTEMOLOGY
The main segments of ideas that make up social cognitive theory are
Observational Learning/Modeling, Outcome Expectations, Perceived Self-efficacy, Goal
Setting and Self-regulation.
According to Schunk (2012), “learning occurs either enactively through actually
doing or vicariously by observing models perform”. Observational learning is the process
in which a learner sees a behavior and then attempts to perform the same behavior. We
see this in many different areas of learning but a prime example in the field of sports.
Generally a more experienced person, or performer, will demonstrate a behavior to show
a less experience person how the task is accomplished. The next step is that the less
experienced learner begins to model his own behavior of this task after what he has
witnessed.
“Outcome expectations reflect individuals' beliefs about what consequences are
most likely to ensue if particular behaviors are performed” (Denler, Wolters, Benzon,
2014). For example, if I believe that wearing a certain aftershave lotion will improve my
chances of impressing a date, I will use that aftershave lotion because I have a positive
outcome expectation and that determines my behavior.
Perceived self-efficacy is the learner’s belief about what they are capable of
learning or doing. This differs from outcome expectations in that self- efficacy is about
what we believe our skills and capabilities are while outcome expectations are essentially
the “reward” that we will receive by preforming the behavior. How we view our own
capabilities is important to learning in social cognitive theory. “Students who typically
perform well have confidence in their learning capabilities and expect (and usually
receive) positive outcomes for their efforts” (Schunk, 2012).
Another aspect of SCT is that of goal setting. Goal setting pertains to the
motivation for learning in SCT. “Goals exemplify the agency view within SCT that
people not only learn, they use forethought to envision the future, identify desired
outcomes, and generate plans of action” (Denler, Wolters, Benzon, 2014).
Self-regulation “refers to the capacity to control one’s impulses, both to stop
doing something, if needed (even if one wants to continue doing it) and to start doing
something, if needed (even if one doesn’t want to do it)” (Tools of the Mind, 2014).
LEARNING PROCESS
In Social cognitive theory learning occurs in two primary ways. Observational or
vicarious learning involves the learner observing a behavior or information being shown
or demonstrated and then imitating that behavior and self-regulating and improving their
own performance of the behavior or task. Enactive learning is the second process and
occurs by the learner actually doing the task or behavior. “Most school learning requires
a combination of vicarious and enactive experiences” (Schunk, 2012).
Social cognitive theory expanded upon the theories of operant conditioning and
contiguous conditioning but differed from these rival theories in several ways. In both
operant conditioning and contiguous conditioning learning is really in the hands of the
learner; most of the process is dependent upon the response of the learner to stimulus
without consideration for such things as the learning environment or the learners outcome
expectations. In social cognitive theory these elements are not only considered in the
learning process, but play a critical role in the process.
Another critical aspect of SCT that is not evident at all in the other theories is the
importance of observation and modeling. These are vital elements of social cognitive
theory and the learning process.
Social cognitive theory is used quite regularly in learning and I believe this is for
good reason. When we see an example of a behavior or task we have a better
understanding of what we are expected to do and therefore it increases our outcome
expectations. This creates a more confident learning environment for the student or
learner.
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Instruction is best accomplished by beginning the process with the learner
observing models preforming the task or behavior, vicarious learning, and then slowly
transitioning to the learner preforming the task, enactive learning. According to Schunk,
“learners should be encouraged to set goals and assess goal progress” (Schunk, 2012). It
is also important that teachers have good self-efficacy as this encourages learning.
SUMMARY
Social cognitive theory encompasses a wider variety of elements in its approach
to learning than other theories and this is one reason for its success. I believe that we
must take into consideration things such as the learning environment, the learners’
outcome expectations and the learners’ self-efficacy when developing courses and course
material. By considering these crucial elements of learning we increase our chances of
success in the learning process.
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Operant Conditioning
Contigous Conditioning
Classical Contitioning
Social Cognitive Theory
References

Atkisson, Michael (2012). Ways of Knowing, Behaviorism vs. Cognitivism.
Retrieved from http://woknowing.wordpress.com/2010/10/12/behaviorism-vscognitivisim/

Culatta, Richard (2011). Innovative Learning, Social Learning Theory. Retrieved
from http://www.innovativelearning.com/teaching/social_learning_theory.html
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Denler Heidi, Wolters Christopher, Benzon Maria (2014). Social Cognitive
Theory. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/socialcognitive-theory/

Schunk, Dale (2012). Learning Theories An Educational Perspective

Tools of the Mind (2014). Retrieved from
http://www.toolsofthemind.org/philosophy/self-regulation/ Retrieved on July 10,
2014