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JAMES U. McNEAL* Marketers are making great efforts to seek relationships between personality ar.d consumer behavior. The extent of their success greatly depends on having adequate psychodiagnostic tools. This article discusses the possibilities for grophoanalysis in marketing research related to consumers' personality. Graphology: A New Marketing Research Technique proponents in the various professional fields mentioned above praise and use it; another group suggests it should be used with caution, and still another group feels that it has no usefulness [2]. Graphology is the study of handwriting. Its goal is usually to determine personality characteristics of a writer. Handwriting is an expressive behavior or one's style of response. Thus it possesses individuality, an expression of the person creating the writing. ^ Marketers are increasingly turning their attention to personality to obtain a better understanding of consumer behavior [5, 14]. Consequently, graphology, which can examine personality, may be of value in marketing research. Of course, there are already a number of fine techniques available for the investigation of personality, but graphology has some significant advantages over many of these methods. Graphology has been used by educators, law enforcement agencies, physicians, psychologists, and psychiatrists [2]. Recently, its application was extended to business [10, 12, 13]. Despite its wide usage, suspicion surrounds it. And mistrust is mainly caused by misuse. About 20 years ago. Bell [1, p. 291] summed up the state of graphology: THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF GRAPHOLOGY The graphologist is supported by several theoretical assumptions. After much perusal of the literature. Bell [1, pp. 292-3] summarized them as follows, noting that many have considerable support from experimentation and others are definitely open to criticism until they receive scientific confirmation or denial. 1. Handwriting is not simply peripheral manual movement. It is the activity of the Gestalt that is called the personality. 2. Handwriting, though bearing traces of training in penmanship, is an individual movement, resulting in graphic products with unmistakable individuality. 3. Individuality in handwriting is an expression of the personality that creates the writing. 4. Variations in personality are accompanied by variations in script. 5. Graphology is not concerned with the written symbol, itself, but with the symbol's expressive value. That is, it does not matter in what context the symbol is used or whether it is neat or untidy but rather what the symbol suggests about the writer. 6. A script is a dynamic whole that does not consist of a summation of isolated signs but of a group of different graphic criteria forming a dynamic relationship. In other words, to the Graphology, a stepsister of American psychology for so many years, has finally found a rationale for its existence in this country. Within the field of personality diagnosis it is now recognized and accepted as a projective technique. This does not suggest that graphology has managed to overcome the widespread suspicion that has surrounded it, or has reached a state of development that merits uncritical acceptance of its findings. It has, however, begun to emerge as a highly legitimate field of psychological experimentation and research. During the past few years, the status of graphology has improved considerably. Today it might be compared with motivation research in the 195O's. One group of 'Although the principal uses of graphology are psychodiagnostic, its application is varied. For example, it has been used to study body build, influence of alcohol, drugs, medical treatment (see [2]). * James U. McNeal is associate professor of marketing and head, Department of Marketing, School of Business, Texas A & M University. 363 Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. IV (November 1967), 363-7 364 graphologist a piece of correspondence, for example, is not a list of words ordered into rows, but a set of symbols related to the writer's personality. 7. The traits of handwriting when seen as a part of a Gestalt are capable of interpretation and give clues to the personality that has produced them. 8. Handwriting varies in expressiveness from one person to another and according to the writer's age and penmanship training. 9. Any handwriting trait varies in its intensity and frequency, not only in the same specimen, but in the same line. Therefore, single-trait analysis, while amenable to statistical treatment, is bound to discredit graphology. . . . 10. There is a natural limit to the variability of every single trait in a person's handwriting, except in rare, mostly psychopathic, cases. In essence, then, handwriting traits manifest personal traits and, under the careful scrutiny of an experienced graphologist, offer information about the writer. This concept also underlies other well-known projective techniques such as finger-painting [9] and figure drawing [6]. HOW DOES THE GRAPHOLOGIST OPERATE? A graphologist's methods diifer according to his goals. Let us assume that the goal is to ascertain the writer's personality traits, since it is this ability that should most interest marketers. His activities would include the following: 1. Obtain a handwriting specimen. Ideally, this specimen should contain variety, that is, most of the letters of the alphabet, capitals, etc., and should be 50-100 words long. If possible, it should be written with pen on unlined paper. It is believed that more can be discovered about the writer if two or three specimens are obtained over a month or two, although the actual additional value of other specimens is not certain. Also, knowing the age, sex, and race of the writer will improve the quality of the findings. 2. Analyze the handwriting specimen according to a set of criteria. The actual criteria vary somewhat by the school to which the graphologist belongs. Generally, most graphologists use the criteria of Ludwig Klages with various modifications [7]. Measurement consists of two types: measuring with common tools such as a ruler or protractor those criteria objective enough to yield measurable items, e.g., slant, height, width; and determining the presence or absence of various factors, e.g., regularity, harmony, degree of connectedness. 3. Interpret the results of the handwriting analysis through comparison and summation of the measures obtained. Bases for interpretation are derived from empirical evidence of earlier investigators as they are for other projective techniques. JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH, NOVEMBER 1967 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY GRAPHOLOGY OF "There seems to be as much justification for believing that handwriting is a valid expression of personality as finger-painting, copying a Bender-Gestalt design or drawing a person would be, although more of the personality is likely to be projected into some of these techniques than others" [3, p. 212]. In a review of graphology by Fluckiger, Tripp, and Weinberg the following support for its validity as a personality diagnostic tool was indicated [2]: 1. Ratings of handwritings by a graphologist for aesthetic interest agreed (r = .40) with the AUportVernon scores for the same item. There was also some agreement for economic (r = .29) and theoretical interest (r = .25). There was not, however, agreement for political (r = .07) and religious interests (r = .06). 2. Findings from graphology on the personality variables of ascendance and psychoneurosis were statistically correlated (.60 and .80) to findings using the AUport-Ascendance-Submission Scale and the Thurston Personality Schedule, Clark Revison. 3. A graphologist's ratings for neurotieism correlated significantly (.70) with an objective measure of neurotieism derived from 17 tests, but his ratings did not agree better than chance with those of a group of psychiatrists. 4. Positive correlations (typically around .70) between handwriting characteristics and intelligence were found using a variety of subjects and intelligence criteria. Many studies have been done to test this relationship. In a classical study by Ruth Munroe in which she analyzed the personality of one college student, substantial agreement was obtained between graphology and two other projective techniques, the Rorschaeh test and spontaneous drawings [8]. Though there are many other positive assessments of the validity of graphology as a psychodiagnostic tool, there are also studies that did not support its validity [2]. These contrary findings together with often low validity ratings should cause the new user of graphology to approach it carefully. Wolfson summed up her investigation of graphology and its validity: "Altogether, research findings appear to favor as psychologically most tenable and fruitful the hypothesis that handwriting expression and personality functioning are intricately related, but the problem of handwriting as a testing device persistently raises obstacles to quantification and interpretation" [15, p. 427]. Studies of reliability of graphology are scant. Between 1933 and 1960 Fluckiger, Tripp, and Weinberg [2] found only two studies of intra-judge reliability. Both studies produced low reliability coefficients. The reviewers found four studies of inter-judge reliability, but because of differing conditions under which the GRAPHOLOGY: A NEW MARKETING RESEARCH TECHNIQUE judgments were made, assessment was difficult. They concluded that "judges agree when the scoring categories are crude and simple or when they are defined clearly in quantitative terms" [2, p. 73]. Recently, Galbraith and Wilson [4] conducted an investigation of inter-judge reliability. They had three trained judges to examine for five personality traits handwriting samples of 100 subjects. Reliability coefficients ranged from .61 to .87 (the greater agreements being significant at the .05 level). GRAPHOLOGY IN BUSINESS Banking has always relied on handwriting analysis for identifying signatures as genuine or forged. Some banks in Cleveland, Denver, and San Francisco are experimenting with it as a check for credit risks [13]. George Rast [12, p. 78], a bank vice president, states: A credit manager has an added 'ace in the hole' if he can discern from handwriting that a credit applicant has pride, an ethical approach to problems and is orderly and well balanced. If, on the other hand, a specimen of writing showed vanity, excessive generosity or extravagance, ostentation and impulsiveness, the credit manager would do well to think twice before granting an unsecured loan. Personnel administrators also are considering graphology. A large manufacturer, for example, has been conducting a systematic study of graphology in personnel selection for attempting to identify creative marketing talent [13]. It is quite pleased with its efi'orts which showed graphological evaluations to be related to actual performance and job success. In another instance the handwritings of employees of 18 companies were examined for dishonesty [1]. Fourteen employees were labeled by the graphologist as dishonest; this figure was confirmed by the employers. Moreover, an honest person was never classified as dishonest. Frederick reports that graphology is used by European personnel management [3]. Here the graphologists are trying to identify effective leaders and potential supervisors. Finally, through analysis of handwriting specimens, as well as the writing paper and word usage, Plog developed an index of literacy for letters received by the editor of the Boston Herald [10]. Graphology for Marketers It was shown earlier that graphology is a projective technique for revealing personality elements. It also may be a valuable research tool to those marketers who view personality as a variable of consumer behavior. In some cases the marketer may find graphology more useful than another projective technique; in many cases it will be used as a supplement to exploratory research. The application of handwriting analysis to marketing research, like most projective tools, is limited only by 365 the marketer's imagination and skill. The suggestions made are only to create an awareness of the possibilities. Graphology is useful for personality description whenever an adequate handwriting specimen is available. Thus, a marketer may discover personality characteristics, for example, for the following groups. Users and applicants for credit. For retail businesses such as department stores and service stations that rely on credit for much of their business, graphoanalysis of credit application forms should be valuable. It might be most productive to first graphoanalyze the applications of people who already have favorable credit ratings as well as those who have been rejected. The study should produce some personality-based guidelines for accepting or rejecting credit applications. These guidelines would then form the structure for an ongoing graphoanalytical credit acceptance program. By looking for personality characteristics believed to be associated with credit risk, losses may be reduced. Purchasers of durable and semi-durable goods. Most durable goods manufacturers require the purchaser to complete and return a warranty card. Typically, the information on these cards is used for marketing research purposes. Assuming they contain an adequate amount of handwriting, which can be required, graphoanalysis of the cards may reveal additional valuable data about the people buying a given product. The data may reveal a typical personality type attracted to the product or the stores from which the item is purchased.^ Durable goods are often produced with a personality type in mind. Graphoanalysis of the warranty cards can provide a check on such product strategy. The resulting data also may aid in the refinement of advertising strategy since advertisements are often developed for specific personality types. Respondents to contests. Each year millions of consumers complete contest entry blanks "in 25 words or less." Examination of the resulting handwriting specimens might indicate personality characteristics of people who (a) consume the sponsors' products, (b) like contests, or (c) respond to the particular advertising medium in which the contest appeared. Additional research probably would be necessary to find the degree of overlap among these three kinds of people. Writers of letters with complaints, compliments or requests for information. Marketers frequently receive letters from irate as well as satisfied consumers. Graphoanalysis of these letters might show the type of personality that is satisfied or dissatisfied with the product. Too, it may give an indication of the kind of person that generally writes complaint letters. Requests for information are also a useful source of market data. The handwriting in these requests should give some clues to the personality types showing an interest in a marketer's product offering. ' Store-related information can be returned to the various retailers so they may use it in sharpening their marketing strategies. 366 JOURNAL OF MARKETING RESEARCH, NOVEMBER 1967 Respondents of any questionnaire. The typical marketing research questionnaire that asks the respondent to answer a series of questions (usually via mail) can offer much additional information if graphology is used. Not only does the marketer receive the answers he sought, but also much data about the person completing the questionnaire. For example, the diaries required of consumer panelists should contain much information about the panel if handwriting analysis is applied. Writers of merchandise orders. Graphoanalysis of completed order blanks for merchandise may reveal valuable data about the personality of those using a catalog and those who prefer certain products offered in the catalog. A manufacturer or wholesaler could also get some idea of the personality make-up of retailers who do business with him by examining the written orders from them. Though unrelated to consumer research, it seems appropriate to mention that a check on the personality of one's salesmen is possible by periodic graphoanalysis of order forms they complete or other written materials, such as itineraries. If a periodic examination is made of a salesman's handwriting, it may be possible to note serious changes in his personality that might hamper his effectiveness. Miscellaneous written materials. Finally, it may be possible to obtain personality information about persons, for example, who sign in at motels and hotels and who buy insurance at air terminals. The applications usually required for life and casualty insurance purchases might furnish important additional insurance guidelines if graphoanalysis is applied. WHY USE GRAPHOLOGY? Graphology may be used instead of another projective technique to supplement other projective techniques or other standard marketing research methods. In any case, graphology offers a number of advantages. Handwriting specimens are usually available or easily obtained. Consequently, when personality data are required about a group of consumers, the planning and execution of a long research project may be unnecessary. A simple graphoanalysis of existing handwriting (such as warranty cards) may provide the needed information. Obviously, much money and time are saved. Handwriting specimens are often by-products of other market research instruments. Yet, much information about respondents can be found in these specimens, and additional valuable information is learned about consumers at minor costs. (The only costs would be for analysis and interpretation.) This advantage of graphoanalysis should encourage the marketing researcher to seek more written responses instead of oral responses. Handwriting is almost impervious to fraud. Falsification is common among many personality inventories and projective techniques, but handwriting is difficult to distort. A handwriting specimen can be obtained without respondent knowledge of its purpose. Thus it discourages faking and eliminates test jitters that often occur among respondents, and it minimizes respondent disinterest and impatience with abstract tests such as the Rorschaeh or Thematic Apperception Test. Finally, handwriting specimens are available for reference. They can be reexamined for additional data or compared with later specimens. Problems in Graphology A major problem in using graphology for marketing research is obtaining acceptance. Even open-minded researchers may feel a sense of embarrassment about a technique equated with such unscientific practices as palmistry and astrology. A similar feeling, however, probably was experienced by the first marketing researchers who attempted to use TAT pictures. Even if researchers find graphology useful, they may have difficulty selling its results to management. Another serious problem is the reliability and validity of graphology; there is little substantial evidence about these factors. Thus, the researcher intending to include graphology in his tool kit must do so cautiously and open-mindedly. He should not be frightened because the technique is not perfect. His application of it can enhance its quality. Had earlier market researchers ignored other projective techniques because of warnings of validity and reliability (see, for example, [11]), market research would not be so advanced. There are some inherent technical problems in using graphology in market research. Obtaining adequate handwriting samples will require special attention. There is a tendency to make warranty cards and research questionnaires, for example, more simple (often to the point that they require only checkmarks). Here graphology would be useless. So, the market researcher must decide if the data generated by graphoanalysis merits written warranty cards and questionnaires. Further, there is the question of who actually did the writing on, for example, the warranty cards. Was it the purchaser, another member of the family, or the salesman who sold the goods? Also, people tend to print or type responses, particularly if such instructions are given. If graphology is to be used, the instructions must be changed to require a handwriting sample and perhaps, even a signature to validate the handwriting. Assuming a firm does wish to use graphology as a market research technique, there is still the problem present when the use of any new projective technique is attempted, that is, finding personnel who can properly use it. Few marketing researchers wHl probably be skilled in graphoanalysis. Certified Graphoanalysts and Master Graphoanalysts can be found by contacting the International Graphoanalysis Society (Chicago). Also, many psychologists at universities are qualified to give assistance with graphoanalysis. Finally, there are 367 GRAPHOLOGY: A NEW MARKETING RESEARCH TECHNIQUE graphoanalysts already in medicine, law enforcement, banking, etc., that might welcome the chance to practice with marketing problems. CONCLUSIONS 4. 5. Marketers frequently need data about the personalities of their consumers. Graphoanalysis may furnish this information easily, quickly, and inexpensively. Convincing marketers of the value of graphology will be difficult. Though problems involved in its application are not insurmountable, they are serious. This fact, combined with graphology's history, no doubt will discourage many marketing researchers. Perusal of the literature indicates that graphology is quickly obtaining a reputable status among psychologists as a projective technique. It is also significant, that despite the problems of use, businessmen are using and experimenting with graphology in nonmarketing functions. There is, however, no evidence of its use by marketers. Whether graphology becomes another market research technique depends primarily on the marketer realizing that he, too, is a behavioral scientist whose efforts need not follow behavioral scientists. 13. REFERENCES 14. 1. John E. Bell, Projective Techniques, New York: Longmans, Green & Company, Inc., 1948, Chapter 14. 2. Fritz A. Fluckiger, Clarence A. Tripp, and George H. Weinberg, "A Review of Experimental Research in Graphology, 1933-1960," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 12 (January 1961), 67-90. 3. Calvin J. Frederick, "Some Phenomena Affecting Hand- 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 15. writing Analysis," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 20 (February 1965), 211-8. Dorothy Galbraith and Warner Wilson, "Reliability of the Graphoanalytic Approach to Handwriting Analysis," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 19 (September 1964), 615-8. Morris J. Gottlieb, "Segmentation by Personality Types," in James U. McNeal ed.. Dimensions of Consumer Behavior, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965, 83-92. Sidney Levy, "Figure Drawing as a Projective Test," in Lawrence E. Abt and Leopold Bellak eds., Projective Techniques, New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1950, 257-97. T. Stein Lewinson, "An Introduction to the Graphology of Ludwig Klages," Character and Personality, 6 (June 1938), 163-76. Ruth L. Monroe, "Three Diagnostic Methods Applied to Sally," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 40 (April 1945), 215-27. Peter J. Napoli, "Finger-Painting and Personality Diagnosis," Genetic Psychology Monographs, 34 (July 1946), 133-230. Stanley C. Plog, "A Literacy Index for the Mailbag," Journal of Applied Psychology, 50 (February 1966), 8691. Alfred Politz, "Motivation Research from a Research Viewpoint," The Public Opinion Quarterly, 20 (Winter 1956-1957), 663-73. George H. Rast, "Value of Handwriting Analysis in Bank Work," Burroughs Clearing House, 50 (March 1966), 4 0 41 ff. Ulrich Sonnemann and John P. Kernan, "Handwriting Analysis—A Valid Selection Tool?" Personnel, 39 (November-December 1962), 8-14. W. T. Tucker and John J. Painter, "Personality and Product Use," in James U. McNeal ed.. Dimensions of Consumer Behavior, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965, 75-82. Rose Wolfson, "Graphology," in Harold H. and Gladys L. Anderson eds.. An Introduction to Projective Techniques, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1951, 416-56.