Download absolutism Absolutism in Europe was a theory of kingship whereby

absolutism
Absolutism in Europe was a theory of kingship whereby the monarch ruled a centralized state with absolute
sovereignty. Possessing unlimited power, he was not subject to any laws but those of God. Absolutism
prevailed from the 15th century to the end of the 18th century and was often used as a unifying force in the
consolidation of nation-states. Today, an absolute monarch would be known as a dictator.
The theoretical justification for absolutism was derived from various sources and traditions, including the
Bible and the practices of ancient civilizations. Above all, two influential figures validated absolutism in
the 17th century. In France, Bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet affirmed that absolute power could be
justified through the divine right of kings to rule—an authority given to monarchs directly by God. Since
the monarch was God's representative on Earth, his decisions became law without any accountability. In
other words, whoever challenged the monarch was challenging God. Political theorist Thomas Hobbes of
England, on the other hand, justified absolutism politically rather than religiously. In Leviathan (1651),
Hobbes wrote that absolute monarchy was the only system of government capable of maintaining order
among the unruly masses.
Practical considerations also accounted for absolutism. After the calamitous 14th century, people were
ready to accept a strong monarch, especially if he restored order from chaos. The Protestant Reformation
contributed to absolutism as well. Papal influence had weakened in many states, and secular affairs needed
guidance from a powerful ruler. To establish order and control, monarchs required a bureaucracy, which in
turn helped to maintain central authority. Bureaucrats were responsible for collecting taxes, enforcing laws
and royal decrees, and gathering information. With the taxes collected by bureaucrats, monarchs could
establish large, standing armies, which further consolidated their power.
In addition, 15th-century mercantile policies, which produced unimaginable wealth, contributed to the rise
of absolutism. The mercantile notion of a national, self-sufficient economy stimulated production and
generated surpluses. To maintain that prosperity, monarchs regulated all aspects of economy and industry
and built navies to protect their trade.
Absolutism first appeared in Spain due to some dynastic marriages that significantly increased the
territorial holdings of the Habsburg royal family. Holy Roman emperor Charles V ruled over nearly all of
Christian Europe in the 16th century. He was also the secular head of the Catholic Church and protector of
the pope. However, the Protestant Reformation threatened to divide his Catholic kingdom.
When Philip II succeeded his father Charles, he firmly applied the divine right theory. Philip made every
decision and micromanaged his expansive bureaucracy, which in turn closely supervised his territories. He
conquered neighboring Portugal, united the two thrones, and took over Portugal's overseas territories.
Substantial income poured into the Spanish treasury.
A devoted Catholic, Philip fought several wars of religion. He won the 1571 Battle of Lepanto against the
Islamic Ottoman Empire. He next tried to quell Protestantism in the Netherlands but was unsuccessful;
during the Dutch Revolt, the United Provinces declared independence from Philip's rule in 1581.
Philip's successors were weak. Spain was crushed by taxes and huge debts that plunged the country into a
stagnation from which it took centuries to recover.
French absolutism became the prototype for all the other European monarchs. Absolutism emerged in
France partially in response to a rebellious aristocracy that had embroiled the country in internal conflict,
particularly the Fronde Revolts of the mid-17th century. Determined to suppress the nobles, King Louis
XIV took personal control in 1661.
Louis profoundly believed that he was God's lieutenant on Earth. He dutifully performed his monarchical
and ceremonial tasks but was ruthless in his suppression of anyone who questioned his authority. He
crushed the Huguenots through enforced conversion or death and forced obedience to his decrees in the law
courts. He diminished the power of autonomous towns as his centralized government assumed control over
France.
Louis' ministers, who were totally obedient to him, helped to cement the king's power over his kingdom.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert, for example, was responsible for the building of roads and canals, prices, wages, and
the quality of French goods; he ensured the protection of French industry with high tariffs. People living in
French territories throughout the world were restricted from trading with non-French entrepreneurs and
could only transport materials on French ships.
Louis also fought several major wars between 1667 and 1713: the War of Devolution, the War of the Grand
Alliance, and the War of the Spanish Succession. They were meant to enhance Louis' prestige, enlarge
France, and place a French Bourbon on the Spanish throne.
Finally, Louis expanded his hunting château at Versailles into a symbol of his power. Its beautiful gardens,
lakes, elaborate fountains, and opulent interior exemplified his rule as the Sun King, around which
everything revolved. Moreover, he kept the nobles virtually imprisoned at Versailles in order to scrutinize
their every action.
The development of absolutism was entirely different in England. Although absolutist, the Tudor dynasty,
which ruled from 1485 to 1603, achieved its objectives through adept and popular rulers. The Tudor
monarchs worked with the British Parliament and used it to their advantage to improve their power and the
lives of their countrymen.
With the Scottish Stuart dynasty, absolutism became more pronounced. James I asserted his divine right to
rule, but his arrogance caused many in England to resent his power. In turn, his son Charles I caused a
constitutional struggle. After repeated disputes with Parliament, Charles dissolved the body and ruled alone
during the Eleven Years' Tyranny. In 1642, however, the English Civil War erupted between royalists loyal
to Charles and parliamentarians. Parliament won the battle, and Charles was beheaded in 1649.
After several years of rule by Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell, the Restoration brought Charles II to the
throne in 1660. Realizing that absolutism would fail, Charles used favors to gain parliamentary support for
his policies. When Charles died, however, his devoutly Catholic brother James II soon ran into struggles
with Parliament. After deeming that James had abdicated, Parliament offered the throne to the Protestant
Mary II and William III in what came to be known as the Glorious Revolution.
In sum, the British Parliament had won the absolutism battle by deposing and appointing monarchs as it
saw fit. The divine right of kings theory had been dealt a devastating blow. John Locke justified
Parliament's actions in 1690 with his publication Two Treatises of Civil Government, which argued in favor
of legitimate revolt against any type of tyrannical government. Locke's theory would lead to the American
Revolution and the French Revolution.
In Russia, absolutism had existed since the reign of Ivan III in the 15th century. His grandson Ivan IV
centralized and expanded Russia. At the turn of the 18th century, Peter I entrenched absolutism in Russia.
At the helm of a strong, centralized government, Peter fought many expansionist wars, opened Russia to
the West, improved the nation's industries, and reorganized the army. In keeping with the tradition of
absolutism, he also suppressed the power of the church.
Russian empress Catherine II seized power in 1762. An absolutist ruler, she nevertheless considered herself
an enlightened despot. She outwardly showed her liberal intentions; however, her reforms never reached
beyond the privileged classes.
In the Holy Roman Empire, Charles VI, also king of Hungary and archduke of Austria, attempted to
consolidate his territories into one centralized kingdom. In 1713, he issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which
was meant to guarantee that all of his dominions would pass intact to a single heir. Objections by other
European powers to his choice of Maria Theresa as heir, as well as ethnic divisions within his realm,
hampered Charles' absolutist goals.
Empress Maria Theresa did, however, succeed in unifying her domain. She centralized the bureaucracy and
reduced Church power. Her successor Joseph II continued his mother's economic and domestic reforms.
However, Joseph's reforms remained in effect only while he reigned.
In Prussia, Frederick I established the Hohenzollern family as an important dynasty. With the help of a full
treasury and his father's disciplined army, he made Prussia a European great power.
A variation of absolutism also existed in Denmark, Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire. Yet after the French
Revolution, absolutism began to decline. Other absolutist dynasties like the the Russian Romanov dynasty
and the Austrian Habsburg dynasty lost their thrones during and shortly after World War I.
Further Reading
Beik, William, Absolutism and Society in Seventeenth-Century France, 1985; Beloff, Max, The Age of
Absolutism: 1660-1815, 1962; Hubatsch, Walther, Frederick the Great of Prussia: Absolutism and
Administration, 1975; Kamen, Henry, Philip of Spain, 1997; Kimmel, Michael S., Absolutism and Its
Discontents: State and Society in Seventeenth-Century France and England, 1988; Lincoln, W. Bruce, The
Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias, 1981; Scott, H. M., ed., Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and
Reformers in Later Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1989; Treasure, G. R. R., Cardinal Richelieu and the
Development of Absolutism, 1972; Upton, Anthony F. Charles XI and Swedish Absolutism. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1998; Wedgwood, C. V., A Coffin for King Charles, 1964.
Select Citation Style:
MLA
"absolutism." World History: The Modern Era. ABC-CLIO, 2012. Web. 30 Jan. 2012.
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