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Review Instrument Final Instrument Currency • “To act as PIC of an aircraft on an IFR flight plan, one must have logged (within the preceding 6 months): – – – – 6 approaches holding intercepting and tracking navigation courses or passed an IPC Spatial Disorientation • Conflict between the signals relayed by your central vision and information provided by your central vision • Movement of snow or rain out the window • Airplane next to you begins to taxi Hypoxia • Hypoxic – high altitudes • Hypemic – CO, anemia, smoking • Stagnant – high G’s • Histotoxic – alcohol, drugs Slip and Skid • Slip - rate of turn is too slow for the bank and the ball moves to the inside of the turn • Skid - rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank and the ball moves to the outside of the turn Magnetic Compass • Errors – Variation - the angular difference between the true and magnetic pole – Deviation - errors due to magnetic interference with the metal components of the aircraft – Magnetic dip - the compass tries to point down deep inside the earth ISA • International Standard Atmospheric Sea Level - 150 C - 29.92 in HG • Before IFR flight the altimeter set to the current altimeter setting should be within 75 feet of the actual elevation Fundamental Skills Cross Check Instrument Interpretation Aircraft Control Instrument Failure Any instrument may fail separately In addition, any system may fail. – – – – Vacuum system failure Electrical system failure Pitot system failure Static system failure Ground Facilities - VOR Operate in 108.0 - 117.95 MHz Band Standard Service Volumes (SSV) – High Altitude(HVOR) - 200 watts, up to 130 nm, used for airways – Low Altitude(LVOR) - about 100 watts, up to 40 nm, used for airways – Terminal(TVOR) - 50 watts, 25 nm, used for approaches VOR Receiver Checks VOT – 180’ TO, 360’ FROM; +/- 4’ VOR Ground Checkpoint – Indicated radial; +/- 4’ VOR Airborne Checkpoint – Indicated radial; +/- 6’ – Centerline of airway; +/- 6 Dual VOR Check – Within 4’ DME Ground based - VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, LOC/DME Interrogation and response – rate * time = distance Uses slant distance - 1 NM away for each 1000’ elevation Pilot Responsibilities • See and Avoid • IFR Climb Considerations – Optimum until 1000 feet of assigned altitude – 500 to 1500 feet per minute for last 1000 feet Pilot Responsibilities • Adhere to a clearance – Emergency – Violate an FAR – Responding to a traffic alert and collision avoidance system resolution advisory (TCAS RA) Elements of an IFR Clearance • • • • • Aircraft identification Clearance limit Departure procedures Route of flight Altitudes or flight levels – Cruise clearance Abbreviated IFR Clearance • • • • Cleared as file Clearance limit or destination airport SID name, number and transition Altitude and additional instructions – frequency and transponder code Readback • Initial enroute clearance in entirety • Subsequently – Altitude Assignments – Radar Vectors – any instruction requiring verification • ATC clears, ATC advises, ATC requests Tower Enroute Clearance • Short, low altitude routes between terminal areas • Published in Airport/Facilities Manual • Generally below 10,000 feet, less than 2 hours in nonturbojet aircraft IFR Departure Procedures • Standard – 200’/nm climb gradient – 35’ at end of runway – 400’ HAA before turning • Nonstandard – Avoidance by climb or heading – denoted by T on IAP – description in front of IAPs Rate of Climb Table Climb Rate Ft. per NM 80 Ground Speed 90 100 120 200 267 300 333 400 250 333 375 417 500 300 400 450 500 600 350 467 525 583 700 REPORTING PROCEDURES RADAR/NONRADAR • Anytime – – – – – – – – Leaving altitude Leaving any assigned holding fix Missed approach <500 fpm climb/decent TAS varies>5% or 10 kts Time & altitude reaching a holding fix Loss of Nav/Comm(Equip) Unforecast weather REPORTING PROCEDURES NONRADAR (position reports) • At required reporting points – – – – – – ID P osition T ime E levation E TA next N ext next REPORTING PROCEDURES NONRADAR (position reports) • Example – – – – – – – KC center KS81 Salina 1530 FL300 HYS 1545 Lamar next Holding Pattern • • • • • Race track shaped pattern 1 Min Inbound legs <14000’ MSL 1 1/2 min > 14000’ MSL Standard holding pattern is right turns At Nav facility, intersection, or Radial/DME Departure and Arrival Charts • DPs, STARs and visual approaches are routinely assigned by ATC • DPs and STARs are issued to simplify clearance delivery procedures. • Use “No DP” or “No STAR” in remarks, if you do not want to use them Departure and Arrival Charts • To accept a DP you must at least have the textual description • Use the rate of climb table in Legend 18 to convert a specified minimum rate of climb per NM to convert the climb rate into feet per minute Reduce Workload • • • • • Simple, easy to understand, one page Accommodate many types of aircraft Use VORTACs Avoid DME arcs Altitude crossing and airspeed restrictions included if normally used Enroute • MRA( Minimum Reception Altitude) is the lowest altitude at which an intersection can be determined • MOCA(Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude) assure acceptable navigation signal coverage only within 22 NM of VOR Enroute • MEA( Minimum en route altitude) is the lowest published altitude between radio fixes which assures acceptable navigational coverage and meets obstacle clearance requirements Enroute • MCA(Minimum Crossing Altitude) is the lowest altitude at a fix at which an aircraft must cross when proceeding in the direction of a higher MEA Enroute • Obstruction clearance in nonmountainous areas is guaranteed for the MOCA and all minimum IFR altitudes providing at least 1,000 ft of vertical distance from the highest obstruction 4 NM either side of the center of the airway VFR-ON-TOP • VFR-on-top can be conducted only after a pilot has received a VFR-on-top clearance • A pilot must request a VFR-on-top clearance • Must comply with the VFR altitudes VFR-ON-TOP • Both IFR and VFR rules apply • Prohibited in Class A airspace • A clearance “to VFR-on-top” is to fly through cloud layers to VFR conditions on top Reports • Advise ATC when your airspeed changes by 5% or 10 knots whichever is greater • On a direct routes, the fixes defining the routes become compulsory reporting points Reports • When not in RADAR contact on a nonprecision approach, report to ATC any time you leave a final approach fix inbound on the final approach Holding • Turns are made to the right in a standard holding pattern, and to the left in a nonstandard holding pattern • The entry procedure for a holding pattern depends on your heading relative to the holding course Holding Patterns Approach Categories • • • • • • Computed as 1.3 VSO A - Up to 90 knots B - 91 to 120 C - 121 to 140 D - 141 to 165 E - above 165 Approach Charts • The letters IAF indicate the location of an initial approach fix • The procedure title indicates the type of approach system used and the equipment required to fly the approach Approach Charts • MSA( Minimum Safe Altitude) provides 1,000 ft of obstruction clearance usually within 25 NM • Neither navigation nor communication coverage is guaranteed Approach Charts • Absence of a procedure turn or holding pattern indicates a course reversal is not authorized • TDZE(Touchdown zone elevation) is the highest elevation in the first 3,000 ft of the landing surface Approach Charts • TCH(Threshold crossing height) is the altitude at which you cross the runway threshold when established on the glide slope centerline • The procedure turn must be completed within the prescribed distance from the facility Approach Charts • The precision approach FAF is located at the minimum glide slope intercept point • When on the glide slope during a precision approach, the missed approach point is the decision height Approach Charts • When the glide slope becomes inoperative during an ILS procedure, localizer minimums are used • Substitution for certain ILS components, when the component is inoperative are permitted Approach Charts • If your groundspeed decreases, the rate of descent required to stay on glide slope must also decrease • Localizer and glide slope indications become more sensitive as you get closer to the runway Approach Procedures • An LDA approach is comparable to a localizer, but is not aligned with the runway • An SDF may offer less accuracy than an LDA approach Contact Approach • Must be requested by the pilot, the visibility must be at least one mile, allows the pilot to deviate from an instrument approach procedure and proceed to the destination airport by visual reference to the surface Weather Factors • Highs are usually associated with – – – – – Good visibility Light winds Few clouds Good weather Characterized by descending air Weather Factors – Lows are usually associated with • • • • • • • • precipitation cloudiness poor visibility bad weather turbulence Wind characterized by rising air Example of lows are hurricanes and tornadoes Weather Factors • Air tries to flow from high to low – At higher altitudes, Coriolis force makes the wind flow parallel with isobars – At lower altitudes, surface friction weakens Coriolis force and flows across the isobars – This airflow is wind Weather Factors • In the northern hemisphere – Air flows counterclockwise around a low (cyclonic) – Air flows clockwise around a high (anticyclonic) – If one were to fly directly to the center of a low, the winds would come from the left and get stronger as one got closer Weather Factors • Relative Humidity – Measure of how much moisture is present for a a parcel of air at a temperature. – If a parcel of air has a RH of 100%, it is saturated. The temperature that it is at is called the dewpoint. If this parcel were cooled more, water vapor would clouds, fog, dew or frost Thunderstorms • Conditions – Unstable air – Lifting action – High moisture content • Stages – Cumulus stage – Dissipating stage Mature stage Hazards • Embedded thunderstorms may be obscured by cloud layers • Wind shear can be found on all sides as well as directly under it • Greatest intensity during mature stage, which is signaled by precipitation at the surface Types of Thunderstorms • Airmass thunderstorms are usually isolated or scattered over a large area • Frontal thunderstorms associated with frontal activity • Squall line is a narrow band of active thunderstorms normally containing severe weather Wake Turbulence • Wingtip vortices occurs when an airplane generates lift • They can exceed the roll rate of an aircraft • Greatest when an aircraft is heavy, slow and clean Clear Air Turbulence • Turbulence above 15,000 feet AGL not associated with cumuliform cloudiness is reported as CAT • CAT is common in a upper trough on the polar side of the jet stream Mountain Wave Turbulence • Greatest turbulence occurs approaching the lee side of a mountain range in strong headwinds • Standing lenticular and rotor clouds indicate the possibility of strong turbulence Microbursts • Intense, localized downdrafts seldom lasting longer than 15 minutes • Downdrafts can be as strong as 6,000 feet per minute • Performance changes drastically as an aircraft flies through a microburst Fog • Radiation Fog - ground fog - forms over fairly flat land on clear, calm nights • Advection fog- forms near coastal areas when moist air moves over colder ground or water Fog • Upslope fog forms when moist stable air is forced up a sloping land mass • Steam fog occurs as cool air moves over warmer water • Precipitation-induced fog forms when warm rain falls through a layer of cooler air near the surface TAF • Terminal Aerodrome Forecast - valid for a 24 hour period and scheduled four times a day • Primary source of destination weather • AMD means and amended forecast • COR means a corrected forecast • RTD indicates a delayed forecast Area Forecast FA • Issued three times a day and include a forecast period of 18 hours • We are in the Chicago region • Consists of four sections – – – – Heading Precautionary statements Synopsis VFR Clouds and Weather Wind and Temperature Aloft • Uses a four digit code for wind speed and direction, the first two digits are the wind direction in hundreds of degrees • The second two digits indicate wind speed • A two digit temperature code in degrees Celsius follows the wind speed and direction code • All temperature above 24,000 feet are negative Types of Briefings • Standard is the most complete briefing and assumes no familiarity with the weather picture • Abbreviated is used to update weather information when you need only one or two specific items • Outlook is used if you departure is six or more hours away. You should update with a standard or abbreviated briefing closer to flight time In-Flight Weather Sources • Airmets - WA - Airmans meteorological information are forecasts for a maximum of a six hour period • Sierra for IFR conditions • Tango for turbulence • Zulu for icing and freezing levels SIGMETs • Significant meteorological information WS – – – – Severe Icing Severe and extreme turbulence Volcanic eruptions Duststorms, sandstorms or volcanic ash lowering visibility to less than three miles Convective SIGMETs • Imply severe or greater turbulence, severe icing and low level wind shear • Contain either an observation and a forecast or just a forecast for tornadoes, significant thunderstorm activity or hail 3/4 inch or greater in diameter Center Weather Advisory CWA • Issued by ARTCC to alert pilots of existing or anticipated adverse weather conditions • May be issued prior to an AIRMET or SIGMET as a result of PIREPs