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Roman Politics in the First Century
Overview
Governmental Structure
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Overview
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Rome was founded in the 8th Century BC and it became a Republic in the 5th Century BC. In
order to keep their conquered provinces under Roman authority; the emperor instituted rulers
within the territories. The highest officials in the provinces were proconsuls who were
accountable to the Roman senate. Twelve praetors, or judges, were appointed to uphold Roman
law. The last group of officials was twenty quaestors who were responsible for the financial
affairs of the Empire.
Roman citizenship was a highly prized possession in the 1st Century. Originally citizenship
could only be obtained through birth, but as the empire expanded citizenship was issued to those
who had accomplished some task for the empire or to those who could purchase their citizenship.
A Roman citizen had 3 names, a forename, a family name and an additional name. While
traveling throughout the empire, a Roman citizen enjoyed the protection and special privilege of
special rights established by Roman law. The first of these laws was set up under the Valerian
Law at the institute of the Republic in 509 BC. A citizen's rights included a fair public trial,
exemption for execution, and protection from specific disgraceful public punishments.
Government in Judea had a separate and distinct existence from the other political institutions in
the Empire. In AD 6 Judea was adopted as an official Roman province. The Roman Empire
appointed a governor who regulated peace in the region and guaranteed the collection of all
taxes. The high priest and a council of seventy elders (Sanhedrin) governed the internal concerns
of the Jews. Roman rule always maintained the supreme authority in all matters. Jews were
required to pay double taxes as one share went to the Roman Empire and their tithe to the
temple. As a result of their separate religion and government, Jews remained among the least
assimilated group in the Roman Empire.
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Governmental Structure
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The Romans never had a written constitution, but their form of government from the 3rd Century
BC forward roughly parallels the divisions set up in the American model: Executive, Legislative,
and Judicial branches.
EXECUTIVE BRANCH: The Elected Magistrates. With the exception of the dictatorship, two
men held all offices (collegial). All members of a college were of equal rank and could veto acts
of other members; higher magistrates could also veto the acts of lower magistrates. With the
exception of the dictatorship (6 months) and the censorship (18 months), the term of office was
limited to one year. The rules for holding office for multiple or successive terms were a matter of
considerable contention over time.
CONSULS (2): the chief civil and military magistrates. They convened senate, curiate, and
centuriate assemblies.
PRAETORS (2-8): their main functions were military commands and the administration of civil
law in Rome.
AEDILES (2): could be plebian (plebian only) and curule (plebian or patrician). They were in
charge of religious festivals, public games, temples, upkeep of city, regulation of marketplace,
and grain supply.
QUAESTORS (2-40): financial officers and administrative assistants in both civil and military
functions. They were also in charge of the state treasury at Rome and in the field they served as
quartermasters and seconds-in-command.
TRIBUNES (2-10): they were charged with the protection of lives and property of plebeians.
Their persons were considered inviolable, they had the power of veto over elections, laws,
decrees of the senate, and the acts of other magistrates (except dictator), convened tribal
assembly and elicited plebiscites.
CENSORS (2): elected every 5 years to conduct census, enroll new citizens, review roll of
senate, controlled public morals, and supervised leasing of public contracts. They ranked below
Praetors and above Aediles, but in practice this position was the pinnacle of the senate career and
carried enormous prestige and influence.
DICTATOR (1): in times of military emergency he was appointed by consuls. He appointed a
Master of the Horse to lead the cavalry. His tenure was limited to 6 months or the duration of the
crisis whichever was shorter. He was not subject to veto.
SENATE: this was originally an advisory board composed of the heads of the leading families.
It came to be an assembly of former magistrates. It became the most powerful organ of the
Republican government and the only body of state that could develop consistent long-term
policy. Decrees of the Senate had no formal authority, but often decided matters in practice. The
senate was aware and had its hand in virtually all aspects of Roman society, but its most
important areas of competence were in foreign policy and financial administration.
LEGISTRATIVE BRANCH: 3 citizen assemblies constituted this. All 3 assemblies included
the entire electorate, but each had a different internal organization. These assemblies were made
up of voting units correlating to our own electoral colleges where the single vote of each unit
was determined by a majority of the voters in that unit. Measures passed by a simple majority of
the units.
CURIATE ASSEMBLY: this was the oldest of the three and was made up of 30 members. This
assembly became obsolete as a legislative body but preserved functions of endowing senior
magistrates and witnessing religious affairs. The head of each unit was at least 50 and was
elected for life; patricians controlled this assembly.
CENTURIATE ASSEMBLY: this was the most important assembly. There were 193 centuries
and this was based on wealth and age. Originally this was a military unit whereby membership
was based on one's capacity to furnish armed men in groups of 100. This assembly elected
censors and magistrates. It was the proper body for declaring war. They passed some laws and
served as the highest court of appeal in cases involving capital punishment.
TRIBAL ASSEMBLY: its original purpose was for the election of tribunes and deliberation of
plebeians. The make up of this assembly was based upon place of residence. These assembly
members had to go to Rome to cast any ballot. This assembly was controlled by the landed
aristocracy and eventually became the chief law making body. Roman Religion Culture Home
Home.
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