Download Answer outline for Qualifying Exam 2012 Paper 1 Prepared by

Answer outline for Qualifying Exam 2012 Paper 1
Prepared by Shahrin Said MSPSBS
Question 5
‘Governments were involved in imperialism more for defensive than aggressive reasons.’ How far do
you agree with this claim about the period from c. 1870 to 1900? [Oct/Nov 2010]
Introduction

No major European powers in the later 19th century were involved in imperialism for only single-driven cause.
o Even though the motivations of governments were in most cases viewed as defensive, due to fear and
suspicion governments at times were also aggressive and adopted forceful measures to achieve their aims.
o The supporters of imperialism would claim their reasons for imperialism were totally defensive that is to
protect their rights and interests whilst most historians might suggest otherwise and come to an agreement
that imperialism was neither completely defensive nor aggressive.

Therefore the convincing claim suggests that governments were involved in imperialism equally
for defensive and aggressive reasons based on different range of factors particularly economy,
politics, socio-ideology and peripheral situation.
Body

Major European powers believed that economic factors played an influential role for their establishment of empire
and industry.
o By building an empire and extend territorial control overseas, this increased the opportunity to look for
cheap resources such as coal, iron ore, cotton (which deprived of at home) and low cost labour that
consequently gave rise to rapid production of manufacturing goods and in turn sold for exports to generate
revenue for the country at home.

Both Great Britain and Germany experienced increase percentage of exports from 1899 to 1913
despite facing stiff competition during a period of domestic depression.

The protectionist policies adopted by Europe including Germany under Bismarck in 1879 were
seen as aggressive by Great Britain as the country was excluded from international trade through
impose high tariffs as European power established spheres of influence and staking claims despite
India’s trade helped Britain to survive these policies.

However, these policies were also seen as defensive to protect European countries such as
Germany and France from more competition.
o European powers hoped to gain potential markets overseas and in turn sold their surplus products for
exports.

J.A. Hobson believed that the wealthy capitalists ventured to overseas markets because he saw
limited spending powers of the domestic market. In facts he argued that the British capitalists
sought higher returns in colonial investment and put pressure on the government to protect their
investments by extending their colonial rule.

Though overseas markets were not as profitable as European countries would hope for, Germany
saw trading opportunities abroad as investment for the future (as argued by Anderson) and resort
to intervention and territorial claims to secure and protect their position in the future.

Hence, European powers saw defensive reason to gain markets abroad for industrial products as
to protect their position in the future. On the other hand local natives were forced to compete
with colonizers and availability of resources were stripped off without taking any major concern
on its possible threat of political stability as happened in Algeria by the French.
o

Imperial agents such as Cecil Rhodes and Carl Peters also helped to explain the certainty of economic
dimension to the pursuit of imperial expansion.

Cecil Rhodes knew potential wealth of gold and diamond mines in South Africa similar to Carl
Peters even though a profitless endeavor was actively searching for gold mine in Tanzania.

These individuals, though contributed much to the economic development of the colonial states,
were probably seen as aggressive.

Carl Peters for example used force and led disruption to the peaceful order in German
East Africa. He also often persuaded the government to follow colonial policy and
acquired charter to extend control on the East African mainland. His controversial
actions necessitated with military support also created local resistance by Chaga people.

Like Peters, Rhodes was also controversial in his profit exploits when Dr C Magbaily Fyle
portrayed him as a violent and brutal racist who used forced labour tactics as a means of
founding De Beers (diamond company).

Both of them showed aggressive treatment towards the native population and were far
from defensive in the quest for economic gains in the colonial states.
Imperialism was seen as a means to gain international power and reputation.
o Not only the European powers wanted to establish and maintain ‘great power’ status through colonial
expansion, but also the governments can uplift the esteem of their countrymen and command respect of
the world.

France sought to reassert itself after the 1870-71 defeat by Prussia. Jules Ferry, a keen supporter
of imperialism, saw the significance of pursuing colonial policy not only to protect markets from
other colonial powers but also to maintain social peace and recognize as a great nation.

The new Italy had the dream of imperial expansion to reflect its view of itself as a major power.

Britain gave priority to its growing empire rather than the continent as the symbol of its
greatness.

Thus this political motive of gaining ‘great power’ status could be seen as defensive as
governments were pushed by public pressures and acted in accordance to their popular
attitudes.
o Apart from prestige, European powers hoped to solve domestic problems through colonial expansion.

The British government under Disraeli hoped that people would become less concerned with class
barriers and differences in wealth as a common patriotic pride in empire helped build ‘One Nation
Conservatism’ at home.

Joseph Chamberlain supported Disraeli and the idea that empire might provide a solution to
dangerous pressures at home.

In addition, Germany under Bismarck also agreed that empire provide a glorious patriotic
sideshow which would distract attention from problems at home and help to maintain social
stability.

In spite of the Fischer’s claim of German aggressive intent of ‘Weltpolitik’ in 1890s to
establish a great Central African Empire through forceful means, critics of Fischer
recognized the vagueness of such plan to be a world power.

The colonial policy adopted by Britain and Germany as a means to achieve domestic
stability was in no way aggressive but rather defensive pursuit for political stability at
home.

The influence of Social Darwinism might be seen today as aggressive reason but at the time it seemed neither
aggressive nor defensive but altruistic.
o In the 19th century, European peoples had the belief that they were civilized in the world and therefore had
a duty to try to civilize and to educate the non-European natives.
o In fact, many Europeans felt that they had a calling to help the less fortunate people of the world and to
teach them Christian values and European skills.
o While Social Darwinist beliefs were a form of selfless act, others took a cynical view and wanted to wield
their powers for economic or political advantage.

France and Great Britain believed that expansionism was necessary to avoid a perpetual struggle
for existence and fallen from the ranks of the Great Powers.

The British Prime Minister Lord Salisbury in a speech in 1898 distinguished the ‘living nations from
the “dying” nations’ and his Conservative colleague Lord Curzon believed passionately that as long
as Britain ruled over India, she would be ‘the greatest power in the world’ but that the loss of
India would reduce her to the status of a third-rate power.

The fear of decadence and decline felt by the colonizers although politically important factor, such
political element in imperialism may neither seem necessarily aggressive nor defensive.
o Nevertheless, contemporaries view the influence of Social Darwinism in imperialism and native societies
differently compared to years ago. Even so the concept had negative connation attach to it.

Europeans’ destiny to rule over inferior countries was often seen as aggressive as they reluctant
to learn and understand local language and culture. Oppression and harsh treatment were
common practice in places where the colonizers faced resistance.

King Leopold II put pressure on local natives in Congo

The influence of ‘peripheral’ situation regarded as both defensive and aggressive design to secure colonial interests
by European governments.
o European powers reacted to the problem in the colonies by adopting intervention policy to secure their
interests.
o The British invasion of Egypt was affected by a fear that if Britain did not move to resolve the problems
caused by the nationalist rebellion, the French would, giving them access to the Suez Canal.
o Though Anglo-French relations became hostile until 1900s, the British in particular determined to defend
their economic interests not only in Egypt but also other parts that affected by the Suez Canal.
o Nevertheless the local nationalists might not view British policies of interfering in Egypt affairs as defensive
but rather aggressive to serve the interest of British Empire and not political stability in Egypt.
Sources:
Williams and Simpson, Europe 1789-1914
Jack Watson, Success in European History 1815-1941