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Figure 6-01 LE 6-2 10 m Human height Length of some nerve and muscle cells 0.1 m Chicken egg Unaided eye 1m 1 cm Frog egg 100 µm Most plant and animal cells 10 µm Nucleus Most bacteria 1 µm 100 nm Mitochondrion Smallest bacteria Viruses Ribosomes 10 nm Proteins Lipids 1 nm Small molecules 0.1 nm Atoms Electron microscope Measurements 1 centimeter (cm) = 10–2 meter (m) = 0.4 inch 1 millimeter (mm) = 10–3 m 1 micrometer (µm) = 10–3 mm = 10–6 m 1 nanometer (nm) = 10–3 µm = 10–9 m Light microscope 1 mm LE 6-3a Brightfield (unstained specimen) 50 µm Brightfield (stained specimen) Phase-contrast LE 6-3b Differentialinterferencecontrast (Nomarski) Fluorescence 50 µm Confocal 50 µm LE 6-4 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Cilia Longitudinal section of cilium 1 µm Cross section of cilium 1 µm LE 6-4a Cilia Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 1 µm LE 6-4b Longitudinal section of cilium Cross section of cilium 1 µm Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) LE 6-5a Homogenization Tissue cells Differential centrifugation Homogenate LE 6-5b 1000 g (1000 times the force of gravity) 10 min Supernatant poured into next tube 20,000 g 20 min 80,000 g 60 min Pellet rich in nuclei and cellular debris 150,000 g 3 hr Pellet rich in mitochondria (and chloroplasts if cells are from a plant) Pellet rich in “microsomes” (pieces of plasma membranes and cells’ internal membranes) Pellet rich in ribosomes LE 6-6 Pili Nucleoid Ribosomes Plasma membrane Bacterial chromosome Cell wall Capsule 0.5 µm Flagella A typical rod-shaped bacterium A thin section through the bacterium Bacillus coagulans (TEM) LE 6-7 Surface area increases while Total volume remains constant 5 1 1 Total surface area (height x width x number of sides x number of boxes) 6 150 750 Total volume (height x width x length X number of boxes) 1 125 125 Surface-to-volume ratio (surface area volume) 6 1.2 6 LE 6-8 Outside of cell Carbohydrate side chain Hydrophilic region Inside of cell 0.1 µm Hydrophobic region Hydrophilic region TEM of a plasma membrane Phospholipid Proteins Structure of the plasma membrane LE 6-9a ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER Nuclear envelope Flagellum Rough ER Smooth ER NUCLEUS Nucleolus Chromatin Centrosome Plasma membrane CYTOSKELETON Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules Ribosomes: Microvilli Golgi apparatus Peroxisome Mitochondrion Lysosome In animal cells but not plant cells: Lysosomes Centrioles Flagella (in some plant sperm) LE 6-9b Nuclear envelope NUCLEUS Nucleolus Chromatin Centrosome Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes (small brown dots) Central vacuole Golgi apparatus Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules CYTOSKELETON Mitochondrion Peroxisome Chloroplast Plasma membrane Cell wall Plasmodesmata Wall of adjacent cell In plant cells but not animal cells: Chloroplasts Central vacuole and tonoplast Cell wall Plasmodesmata LE 6-10 Nucleus Nucleus 1 µm Nucleolus Chromatin Nuclear envelope: Inner membrane Outer membrane Nuclear pore Pore complex Rough ER Surface of nuclear envelope Ribosome 1 µm 0.25 µm Close-up of nuclear envelope Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM) LE 6-11 Ribosomes ER Cytosol Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Free ribosomes Bound ribosomes Large subunit Small subunit 0.5 µm TEM showing ER and ribosomes Diagram of a ribosome LE 6-12 Smooth ER Rough ER Nuclear envelope ER lumen Cisternae Ribosomes Transport vesicle Smooth ER Transitional ER Rough ER 200 nm LE 6-13 Golgi apparatus cis face (“receiving” side of Golgi apparatus) Vesicles also transport certain proteins back to ER Vesicles move from ER to Golgi Vesicles coalesce to form new cis Golgi cisternae 0.1 µm Cisternae Cisternal maturation: Golgi cisternae move in a cisto-trans direction Vesicles form and leave Golgi, carrying specific proteins to other locations or to the plasma membrane for secretion Vesicles transport specific proteins backward to newer Golgi cisternae trans face (“shipping” side of Golgi apparatus) TEM of Golgi apparatus LE 6-14a 1 µm Nucleus Lysosome Lysosome contains Food vacuole Hydrolytic active hydrolytic enzymes digest fuses with enzymes food particles lysosome Digestive enzymes Plasma membrane Lysosome Digestion Food vacuole Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food LE 6-14b Lysosome containing two damaged organelles 1 µm Mitochondrion fragment Peroxisome fragment Lysosome fuses with vesicle containing damaged organelle Hydrolytic enzymes digest organelle components Lysosome Digestion Vesicle containing damaged mitochondrion Autophagy: lysosome breaking down damaged organelle LE 6-15 Central vacuole Cytosol Tonoplast Nucleus Central vacuole Cell wall Chloroplast 5 µm LE 6-16-1 Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER Nuclear envelope LE 6-16-2 Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER Nuclear envelope cis Golgi Transport vesicle trans Golgi LE 6-16-3 Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER Nuclear envelope cis Golgi Transport vesicle Plasma membrane trans Golgi LE 6-17 Mitochondrion Intermembrane space Outer membrane Free ribosomes in the mitochondrial matrix Inner membrane Cristae Matrix Mitochondrial DNA 100 nm LE 6-18 Chloroplast Ribosomes Stroma Chloroplast DNA Inner and outer membranes Granum 1 µm Thylakoid LE 6-19 Chloroplast Peroxisome Mitochondrion 1 µm LE 6-20 Microtubule Microfilaments 0.25 µm LE 6-21a Vesicle ATP Receptor for motor protein Motor protein (ATP powered) Microtubule of cytoskeleton LE 6-21b Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 µm Table 6-1a Table 6-1b Table 6-1c LE 6-22 Centrosome Microtubule Centrioles 0.25 µm Longitudinal section Microtubules of one centriole Cross section of the other centriole LE 6-23a Direction of swimming Motion of flagella 5 µm LE 6-23b Direction of organism’s movement Direction of active stroke Motion of cilia Direction of recovery stroke 15 µm LE 6-24 Outer microtubule doublet Dynein arms Central microtubule 0.1 µm Cross-linking proteins inside outer doublets Microtubules Plasma membrane Basal body 0.5 µm Radial spoke 0.1 µm Triplet Cross section of basal body Plasma membrane LE 6-24a Microtubules Plasma membrane Basal body 0.5 µm LE 6-24b 0.1 µm Outer microtubule doublet Dynein arms Central microtubule Cross-linking proteins inside outer doublets Radial spoke 0.5 µm Plasma membrane LE 6-24c 0.1 µm Triplet 0.5 µm Cross section of basal body LE 6-25a Microtubule doublets Dynein arm Dynein “walking” ATP LE 6-25b Cross-linking proteins inside outer doublets Anchorage in cell Effect of cross-linking proteins Wavelike motion ATP LE 6-26 Microvillus Plasma membrane Microfilaments (actin filaments) Intermediate filaments 0.25 µm LE 6-27a Muscle cell Actin filament Myosin filament Myosin arm Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction LE 6-27b Cortex (outer cytoplasm): gel with actin network Inner cytoplasm: sol with actin subunits Extending pseudopodium Amoeboid movement LE 6-27c Nonmoving cytoplasm (gel) Chloroplast Streaming cytoplasm (sol) Vacuole Parallel actin filaments Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells Cell wall LE 6-28 Central vacuole of cell Plasma membrane Secondary cell wall Primary cell wall Central vacuole of cell Middle lamella 1 µm Central vacuole Cytosol Plasma membrane Plant cell walls Plasmodesmata LE 6-29a Collagen fiber EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Fibronectin Plasma membrane Integrin CYTOPLASM Microfilaments Proteoglycan complex LE 6-29b Proteoglycan complex Polysaccharide molecule Carbohydrates Core protein Proteoglycan molecule LE 6-30 Cell walls Interior of cell Interior of cell 0.5 µm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes LE 6-31 Tight junctions prevent fluid from moving across a layer of cells Tight junction 0.5 µm Tight junction Intermediate filaments Desmosome 1 µm Space between cells Gap junctions Plasma membranes of adjacent cells Gap junction Extracellular matrix 0.1 µm 5 µm LE 6-32
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