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Dairy Cattle Production
(95314)
Dr Jihad Abdallah
Raising Heifers from birth to
weaning
1
Sources of this lecture
(1) Michel A. Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING: OVERVIEW
OF SOUND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES Dairy Essentials, Babcock Institute
for International Dairy Research and Development, University of WisconsinMadison
(2) Michel A. Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING: IMPORTANCE
OF COLOSTRUM FEEDING Dairy Essentials, Babcock Institute for International
Dairy Research and Development, University of Wisconsin-Madison
(3) Michel A. Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING: FEEDING
HAY, CONCENTRATES AND WATER. Dairy Essentials, Babcock Institute for
International Dairy Research and Development, University of Wisconsin-Madison
(4) Michel A. Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING: FEEDING
MILK AND MILK REPLACERS. Dairy Essentials, Babcock Institute for
International Dairy Research and Development, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Michel A.
(5) Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING: NEONATAL
DIARRHEA. Dairy Essentials, Babcock Institute for International Dairy Research
and Development, University of Wisconsin-Madison
(6) Wattiaux. HEIFER RAISING—BIRTH TO WEANING:PNEUMONIA. Dairy
Essentials, Babcock Institute for International Dairy Research and Development,
University of Wisconsin-Madison
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Good calf-raising practices
•
-
Good calf-raising practices include:
proper feeding
bedding,
sanitation,
ventilation,
prevention of health problems and close daily
observation.
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First 4 hours after birth
Make sure the calf is breathing:
• If a calf does not breathe immediately after birth, the
nose and mouth must first be cleared of mucus.
• The calf may be laid with its head lower than the rest
of the body or lifted upside down for a few seconds to
drain out mucus.
• Once the airways are cleared, artificial respiration can
be applied by alternatively compressing and relaxing
the chest walls.
• Respiration can also be stimulated by tickling the
calf’s nostrils with a piece of straw or by pouring cold
water on the calf’s head.
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First 4 hours after birth
Disinfect the navel
• Sometimes, the navel bleeds. Usually, application of
a clean piece of cotton is sufficient to stop the
hemorrhage.
• Any blood inside the cord should be squeezed out
before dipping or painting the cord with a strong
iodine solution (7%) or other antiseptic
• Infection of the naval can be avoided if the cow
calves in a clean environment and the navel is
disinfected soon after birth.
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First 4 hours after birth
Dry the calf
• A wet calf in a windy environment is likely to get
cold and sick rapidly.
• A calf can withstand low temperatures if kept dry and
protected from wind.
Identify the calf
• Newborns should be identified in a permanent
fashion and birth data should be recorded in an
individual permanent record.
• Identification methods include: neck strap or chain
with a number; metal or plastic ear tag; ink tattoo;
and freeze brand.
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First 4 hours after birth
Feed colostrum:
• Colostrum is highly nutritious, contains antibodies
which fight infection by organisms, and has a laxative
effect and stimulates the normal function of the
digestive tract.
• Reseach showed that more than 22% of calf mortality
could be attributed to a lack of immune resistance.
• Colostrum should be fed for the first three or four
meals within the first 24 hours after birth
• The first meal should be fed as soon as the calf is
breathing normally after delivery and not later than
one hour after birth. The second meal should be fed
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within six to nine hours of birth.
Source: (1)
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Source: (2)
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First 4 hours after birth
• There is a rapid decline in the efficiency of absorption
of antibodies within hours after birth. Digestion of
antibodies increases and intestinal cells quickly
become impermeable to antibodies (at about 24 hours
after birth, calves lose the ability to absorb intact
antibodies - gut closure).
• Calves not receiving colostrum within 12 hours of birth rarely
absorb enough antibodies to provide adequate immunity.
• The quantity of colostrum needed by most calves
ranges from 1.25 to 2.5 kg per meal. The amount
consumed per feeding should not exceed the capacity
of the calf’s stomach (5% of body weight).
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• The concentration of immunoglobulin G (IgG)
needed in the blood to protect the calf from infectious
diseases is 10 mg/ml of serum.. Holstein calves only
absorb enough IgG when they are fed two liters of
colostrum once shortly after birth and two liters a
second time 12 hours after birth
• When the first feeding is delayed or less than two
liters of colostrum is fed or, the amount of IgG in the
blood is insufficient to prevent disease (less than 10
mg/ml).
• Colostrum should be warmed to body temperature
(39°C) in a water bath and fed with a pail or a bottle
equipped with a clean nipple. Equipment must be
thoroughly cleaned after each use.
• An esophageal tube may be used to force feed a weak
calf unable to nurse.
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Source: (2)
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• In a few cases, colostrum is a vehicle for disease
transfer between a cow and its calf.
• Examples:
- Bovine leukosis virus is found in the colostrum of
infected cows.
- Johnes’ disease (paratuberculosis).
• Thus the calf of a cow with leukosis or Johnes’ disese
should be removed from the calving area immediately
after birth and fed colostrum from a cow free of the
disease.
• Thus it is very useful to keep a reserve of frozen
colostrum (a warm water bath, 45-50°C, should be
used to thaw frozen colostrum and warm it up to body
temperature before feeding).
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First 4 hours after birth
Do not leave the calf with the cow:
• calf survival increases greatly when the calf is placed
in a clean, dry environment and fed colostrum
immediately after birth.
• calves left with their dam usually ingest less
colostrum too late.
• risk of transmission of infectious diseases increases
when the calf and the cow are not separated.
• When leaving the calf with the cow bonding occurs
between the calf and the cow, However, at some
point, this bond must be broken, creating a stressful
situation for the cow.
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First 4 hours after birth
House the calf in an individual pen
• The risk of acquiring and transmitting disease is
reduced when newborns are placed in individual pens
that are dry, protected from draft and that prevent
direct contact between animals.
• In addition, as the calf grows older, an individual pen
allows the caretaker to monitor the intake of grain
starter, which is an important criteria in deciding
when the calf is ready for weaning.
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The first weeks after birth
Adopt good hygiene habits:
• Necessary to reduce spread of diseases
• Feeding utensils (nipple bottles) should be cleaned
after each use.
• Pens should be cleaned and disinfected as soon as
calves are moved to another location.
• Pens should remain vacant for at least three to four
weeks before putting another calf
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The first weeks after birth
Observe calves for any signs of disease: take the calf’s
temperature and isolate calves showing signs of
illness immediately (loss of appetite, weakness,
sunken eyes, etc.).
Remove extra teats (optional)
• Extra teats can be removed from two to six weeks of
age while the calf is still small and easy to handle.
• Sharp, curved scissors or a scalpel can be used to snip
the teat off at the line where it joins the udder.
• There is seldom any bleeding. Nevertheless, strict
sanitary conditions should be observed (disinfection
of the area prior to and after the operation, and
disinfection of the surgical equipment).
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The first weeks after birth
Dehorn the calf
• Although the horn may be useful for restraining,
dehorning is recommended because horned cows can
cause injuries to other cows or people.
• Dehorning can be done when horn buds are emerging
(10 days to six weeks after birth). As calves get older,
dehorning becomes more stressful.
• Dehorning should be done prior to weaning to avoid
additional stress during that period.
• Dehorning can be done with an electric dehorner or
caustic potash.
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The first weeks after birth
Vaccination:
• The incidence of diseases like diarrhea due to corona
virus, rotovirus and E. coli may be reduced by
immunization.
• Consult the veterinarian for a suitable vaccination
program
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Feeding heifers from birth to
weaning
• In raising dairy heifers, the major goals for
feeding before weaning are to:
- Raise healthy calves;
- Obtain adequate skeletal growth;
- Avoid retarding rumen development (should
not feed large amounts of milk for a long
time).
• Growth rate before weaning: 200-400 g
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• In addition to hygiene, the following factors are
important when feeding milk to young calves:
- Type of milk offered;
- Meal size;
- Frequency of feeding;
- Method of feeding;
- Milk temperature.
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• How much milk should be fed per day?
• Feed 1 kg of milk per day for each 10 to 12 kg of
body weight at birth (8 to 10% of its body weight at
birth ; 2.5 kg of milk for a 25 kg calf, 3.5 kg milk for
a 35 kg calf, etc)
• Calves should be fed the same amount of milk until
they are weaned. By limiting milk consumption,
calves are encouraged to consume solid feed at an
early age.
• Frequency of milk feeding:
• It is preferred to feed milk in two equal meals per day
• When feeding in one meal, excess milk flows back
into the rumen causing digestive problems( bloat, etc)
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Method of feeding: Pail feeding or nipple feeding
• Nipple feeding forces the calf to drink slowly and
reduces the risk of diarrhea and other digestive
disturbances (but strict equipment hygiene is
required).
• A calf can be taught to drink from a bucket within a
few days after birth. This technique is easy, rapid and
requires little cleaning work.
Milk temperature:
• Cold milk leads to more digestive upset than warm
milk.
• 39°C during the first week after birth and 25-30°C
for older calves.
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Milk feeding program for dairy heifers
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Feeding whole milk
• Whole milk can be fed until weaning, after colostrum
and transitional milk feeding phases.
• Limited amounts of whole milk supplemented with a
good grain starter is an excellent feed combination for
dairy calves.
• Growth performance obtained with whole milk and a
grain starter is often considered the standard to
evaluate other products or feeding management
techniques.
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Milk replcer
• Calves may receive a milk replacer beginning at 4-6
days of age.
• Replacers usually contain less fat and thus less energy
(75% to 86%) than whole milk on a dry matter basis.
• Calves fed milk replacer usually gain slightly less
body weight per day than calves fed whole milk.
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Recommended nutrient concentration
of milk replacer (NRC, 1989)
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Digstion of milk in calves
• Only liquid feed can be utilized effectively by calves
a few days old
• When whole milk enters the abomasum, it forms a
curd. Curd formation results from the coagulation of
milk protein, or casein, under the action of the
enzymes rennin and pepsin, and by hydrochloric acid.
• Whey proteins, lactose and most minerals separate
from the curd and pass into the small intestine rapidly
(as much as 200 ml per hour)
• The lactose is digested quickly and, in contrast to
casein and fat, provides immediate energy to the calf.
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The stomach of a newborn
calf
• In the newborn calf, the abomasum is the only
stomach fully developed and functional (functions as
a monogastric)
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Rumen development
• Newborn and young calves fed primarily liquid diets
do not function as ruminants because they have only
one functional stomach, the abomasum.
• The rumen of calves denied access to dry food will
remain undeveloped (this technique is used to
produce veal calves). Thus the consumption of dry
feed is critical to rumen development.
• Bacteria, protozoa and fungi that are normal
inhabitants of the rumen are established naturally
when the calf ingests dry feed.
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Rumen development
• The endproducts of carbohydrate fermentation
(acetate and butyrate in particular) are important
promoters of rumen growth and development.
• Thus rumen growth and development depend more
on grain intake than on forage intake.
• The early consumption of a highly palatable starter
(grain mix) is important to ensure rapid rumen
development and a smooth transition at weaning time.
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Stages in rumen development
Source: (3)
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When should a starter be offered?
• A starter should be offered as early as four days after
birth and should continue until about four months of
age, six to eight weeks past weaning.
• The calf will eat very small amounts of solid food for
the first two weeks after birth. However, they should
be encouraged to eat the starter
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Encouraging calves to eat starter
• Starter should include molasses or other palatable
ingredients;
• Starter should be offered frequently, but in small
amounts to keep it fresh;
• Milk intake should be limited to a maximum of 10%
of body weight at birth per day;
• Clean, fresh water should be available as soon as the
grain starter is offered. Consumption of dry feed is
enhanced by increased water consumption;
• A handful of starter can be placed on the calf’s
muzzle or at the bottom of the pail immediately after
it has finished drinking milk;
• Starters may also be fed with a nipple bottle to
encourage consumption.
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Source: (3)
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Should hay and concentrates be fed?
• Fibrous or bulky feed was thought to play a role in
increasing rumen capacity and maintaining the
normal shape of rumen papillae.
• However, recent research has shown no advantage to
feeding hay when the starter is formulated to contain
sufficient amounts of fiber.
• Carbohydrates in the concentrate are essential
because they provide the butyric acid and acetic acid
required for the development of the rumen wall.
• If the starter does not contain at least 25% neutral
detergent fiber (NDF), hay may be provided.
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• Starter should contain about 18% crude protein, 75 to
80% total digestible nutrients (TDN), and should be
fortified with vitamins A, D, and E.
• There are two types of starters:
- grain starter
- complete starter
• Complete starter contains a higher level of fiber (i.e.,
less energy), slightly less palatable and ingested in
lower amounts than than grain starter.
• When starters are fed, forages are not needed until
after the calf is weaned.
• Usually the grains in starter are coarsely ground or
rolled to obtain a coarse texture. Grinding too fine is
not recommended as fine particles do not stimulate
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rumination.
Examples of starter feed for calves
Source: (3)
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Consumption of a grain starter and body weight gain of young calves fed
milk at a constant rate and forage free choice
Source: (3)
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Weaning
• Weaning of calves is often done on the basis of age,
live weight; and daily intake of concentrate.
• The decisions about calf weaning should be based on
the amount of dry feed calves ingest per day, not on
their age or weight.
• Calf starter should be made available five to 10 days
after birth. A calf consuming 0.7 kg of dry feed or
more on three consecutive days is ready for weaning.
• When calves are fed low levels of milk to encourage
early consumption of dry food, weaning can be done
abruptly. In contrast, if milk is given in large
amounts, weaning may require two to three weeks of
slow transition to avoid a setback in growth.
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Weaning
• Calves not eating sufficient amounts of a grain starter
at weaning lose weight for a few days after weaning.
• This weight loss occurs regardless of the age at
weaning. Therefore, it is not advised to delay
weaning in hope of a “better transition” the focus
should be on trying to encourage early consumption
of grain starter.
• Most calves are ready for weaning by five weeks of
age, but the recommendation is to wean at about eight
weeks of age.
• Calves should remain in individual pens or hutches
for about 10 days after weaning, until the urge to
nurse is lost.
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Weaning
• Milk may be offered only once a day the week before
complete weaning.
• Calves fed a grain starter may be ready for weaning a
few weeks earlier than those fed a complete starter.
Weaning before four weeks of age presents more
risks and usually leads to a higher mortality rate. In
contrast, weaning later than eight weeks of age is
costly because:
• The ration of a weaned calf (forage and concentrates)
is usually less expensive than milk or milk replacer;
• The growth rate remains limited as long as calves are
fed a liquid diet. Weight gain increases considerably
after weaning, provided the calf is well adapted to a
diet of solid food (starter and forages).
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Neonatal Diarrhea
• Diarrhea could be avoided by good management
practices,
• It is the most common cause of death in young calves.
• Most fatal diarrhea occurs the first two weeks after
birth.
• As calves grow older, their susceptibility to infections
decreases rapidly but remains significant until three to
four weeks of age.
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Types of diarrhea
• Nutritional:
- overfeeding milk
- milk replacer of poor quality,
- sudden change in milk composition
• Infectious: E. coli is the primary organism involved
in diarrhea that occurs the during the first few days
following birth (neonatal diarrhea).
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Prevention of Neonatal Diarrhea
1) Management practices
2) Vaccine
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Treatment
In severe cases: administer electrolytes and antibiotics intravenously.
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Should milk still be fed?
- Research indicated that calves receiving ORS only for two days
remain dehydrated and lose weight rapidly.
- Calves receiving their daily allotment of milk (10% of body
weight) plus an acidic ORS do not exhibit a worsening of their
diarrhea and actually gain body weight throughout the rehydration
treatment period (seven days).
Electrolyte solutions used for oral rehydration of
calves suffering from diarrhea
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Pneumonia
• Pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs.
• It is the second most common health problem in
young calves, after diarrhea.
• Most respiratory problems occur when the calf is
between six and eight weeks of age.
• They are caused by the interaction of one or more
microorganisms with stress (e.g., transport), housing
(e.g., ventilation) and nutrition of the calf.
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Microorganisms implicated in pneumonia
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Treatment of Pneumonia
• The calf should be placed in a warm (sunshine), dry,
well-ventilated (fresh air) environment.
• Can be treated with fluid administration.
• Antibiotic treatment is aimed at reducing the effect of
secondary bacterial invasion.
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