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Origins and Early Spread of Agriculture ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Agriculture and Population Growth ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Early Agricultural Society Emergence of villages and towns Discoveries at Çatal Hüyük – a prominent village located in Turkey, occupied 7250-5400 B.C.E. Pots, baskets, textiles, leather, stone, metal tools, wood carvings, carpets, beads, and jewelry Development of crafts – pottery, metallurgy, and textile production ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Neolithic Revolution - domestication of plants and animals begins Villages form, population increases Need for food surplus and irrigation arises Job specialization becomes more complex Political organization begins in order to organize labor for large irrigation projects Social classes form and social structures become more complex The Origins of Urban Life Craft specialization Social stratification Governance Cultural workers Development of the city – a gradual process ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. •The earliest complex societies, or civilizations (located in Egypt and Mesopotamia) began to develop about 5000 years ago, around 3100 B.C.E. This is often referred to as the “Urban Revolution.” •Writing also began about 5000 years ago in some societies, due to the need to keep economic and administrative records. •People began to acquire more possessions •New technologies were developed (irrigation, etc.) •Women lost status as a result of the development of agriculture in most societies. Q: Why do you think this occurred? Civilization - Official Definition: An organized social structure. Main Features of early civilizations, according to some historians: • • • • • • • • cities central government religion job specialization (such as scribes, artisans, priests, etc.) social classes arts and architecture public works a form of writing Another characteristic of many early civilizations was polytheism. Also, the use of slave labor was common. “The truest test of civilization is, not the census, nor the size of the cities, nor the crops, but the kind of man that the country turns out.” -Ralph Waldo Emerson “The true civilization is where every man gives to every other every right that he claims for himself.” -Robert Green Ingersoll “You can’t say civilization isn’t advancing: in every war they kill you in a new way.” -Will Rodgers The following slides highlight the development of influential early civilizations – those first civilizations that had a significant impact or contributed to the development of societies beyond their own. Many of these civilizations are often called “foundation civilizations.” The Four Early River Valley Civilizations Mesopotamia “Between the Rivers” ■ • ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Tigris and Euphrates Modern-day Iraq Cultural continuum of “fertile crescent” Sumerians the dominant people Creation of cities citystates Use of community for projects (defensive walls, temples, etc.) ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Sumer: The First Civilization Sumerian City-States ■ ■ ■ Cities appear 4000 B.C.E. Dominate region from 3200 to 2350 B.C.E. Ziggurat = home of local deity ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ City of Uruk (Euphrates River) Irrigation systems Defense from nomadic peoples Absolute monarchies Cuneiform created for recordkeeping * How was Sumer different than Neolithic villages? Cities = political and military centers; expansion into surrounding areas Marketplaces drew people from other areas Sumerian economic centers Cities also served as religious centers where priests maintained religions Scribes also developed systems of writing & formal education Political Decline of Sumer ■ Semitic peoples from northern Mesopotamia overshadow Sumer (Akkadians & Babylonians) ❑ Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.) ■ ■ ■ Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 B.C.E.) ❑ ❑ ■ Destroyed Sumerian city-states one by one, created empire based in Akkad Empire unable to maintain chronic rebellions Improved taxation, legislation Used local governors to maintain control of city-states Babylonian empire later destroyed by Hittites from Anatolia, ca. 1595 B.C.E. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * The Babylonians were a Mesopotamian civilization descended from the Sumerians. The most famous Babylonian king was Hammurabi (c. 1728 – 1686 B.C.E.) He created the first public, written law code and expanded Babylonian territory in Mesopotamia. Hammurabi’s Code is extremely significant because it was the first comprehensive written law code of the ancient, or foundations period. Hammurabi contributed to the rise and greatness of Babylon, the world's first metropolis. Many relics of Hammurabi's reign (1795-1750 B.C.E.) have been preserved, including the law code. The code is the earliest known example of a ruler proclaiming publicly to his people an entire body of laws, arranged in orderly groups, so that all literate men could read and know what was required of them. The code was carved upon a black stone monument, eight feet high, and clearly intended to be reared in public view. Detail of the top of the stele, depicting Hammurabi and Shamash. Selections from Hammurabi’s Code What can we learn about Babylonian society from this source? Question: What kind of historical source is this? 6. If a man has stolen goods from a temple, or house, he shall be put to death; and he that has received the stolen property from him shall be put to death. 8. If a patrician has stolen ox, sheep, ass, pig, or goat, whether from a temple, or a house, he shall pay thirtyfold. If he be a plebeian, he shall return tenfold. If the thief can not pay, he shall be put to death. 22.If a man has committed highway robbery and has been caught, that man shall be put to death. 23.If the highwayman has not been caught, the man that has been robbed shall state on oath what he has lost and the city or district governor in whose territory or district the robbery took place shall restore to him what he has lost. 195. If a son has struck his father, his hands shall be cut off. 196. If a man has knocked out the eye of a patrician, his eye shall be knocked out. 197. If he has broken the limb of a patrician, his limb shall be broken. 198. If he has knocked out the eye of a plebeian or has broken the limb of a plebeian’s servant, he shall pay one mina of silver. 199. If he has knocked out the eye of a patrician’s servant, or broken the limb of a patrician’s servant, he shall pay half his value. 200. If a patrician has knocked out the tooth of a man that is his equal, his tooth shall be knocked out. 201.If he has knocked out the tooth of a plebeian, he shall pay one-third of a mina of silver. 229. If a builder has built a house for a man, and has not made his work sound, and the house he built has fallen, and caused the death of its owner, that builder shall be put to death. 230. If it is the owner’s son that is killed, the builder’s son shall be put to death. 231. If it is the slave of the owner that is killed, the builder shall give slave for slave to the owner of the house. 232. If he has caused the loss of goods, he shall render back whatever he has destroyed. Moreover, because he did not make sound the house he built, and it fell, at his own cost he shall rebuild the house that fell. Mesopotamian Empires, 1800-600 B.C.E. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Technological Development in Mesopotamia ■ Bronze (copper with tin), ca. 4000 B.C.E. ❑ ■ Iron, ca. 1000 B.C.E. (from Hittites) ❑ ■ ■ ■ ■ Military, agricultural applications Cheaper and more durable than bronze Wheel, boats, ca. 3500 B.C.E. Shipbuilding increases trade networks Horse drawn chariots (Assyrians ~ 19th century BCE) stronger military Donkey caravans ~ 1000s BCE ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Other contributions Used astronomy to create calendars to help with charting the rhythms of seasons & determine when to plant and harvest crops Epic of Gilgamesh Basic plot: king of Uruk & BFF have heroic, BFF offends gods and dies, Gilgamesh bummed and tries to cheat death but eventually realizes death is inevitable. Patriarchal Society ■ ■ Men as landowners, relationship to status Patriarchy: “rule of the father” ❑ ■ Double standard of sexual morality ❑ ❑ ■ Women drowned for adultery Relaxed sexual mores for men Yet some possibilities of social mobility for women ❑ ■ Right to sell wives, children Court advisers, temple priestesses, economic activity Introduction of the veil at least ca. 1500 B.C.E. ■ Overall: more control of women at this point ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Development of Writing ■ ■ ■ Sumerians experiment with pictographs 2900 B.C.E. Sumerians create writing system Cuneiform: “wedge-shaped” ❑ ❑ Preservation of documents on clay Declines from 400 B.C.E. with spread of Greek alphabetic script ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Ancient Egypt: The Gift of the Nile ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Gradual, predictable flooding, alluvial soil “Gift of the Nile” Developed Hieroglyphics Built pyramids Traded with Mesopotamia, Nubia, early Greek civilization ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Egypt: Economy & Technology Use of dikes to protect fields from flooding & for irrigation High interaction with Nubians Heavy trade between kingdoms/economic interaction Use of horses, horse-drawn carriages during New Kingdom (by Hyskos—horse-riding nomads) Iron metallurgy—rose independently (natural iron ores) Bronze metallurgy (rich people) Eventually, Egypt was able to expand trade to Mediterranean and even to Mesopotamia System of writing: Hieroglyphs Ancient Egypt: Society Pharaoh = central leader (absolute ruler) Use of professional military & bureaucracy, tax collectors to help kingdom function • • • Patriarchal society • • • “commoners” could achieve high positions in society through government service Vs. Mesopotamia: women had more power—could serve as priestesses in cults Scribe = best job ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Ancient Egypt: Organized Religion ■ Polytheistic society ❑ ❑ ■ ■ ■ Many gods for many purposes Cults associated with Egypt (Amon-Re, Osiris) Early pharaohs associated with offspring of sun god (rulers = divine!) Deities had important role in society—community effort to appease Elites mummified: belief that death was a transition to new existence ❑ Slaves sacrificed in order to “serve” pharaoh after death/into next life ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * The Early Hebrews ■ ■ According to Hebrew scripture, Abraham migrated to northern Mesopotamia ca. 1850 B.C.E. Parallels between early biblical texts, code of Hammurabi participation in Mesopotamia ■ ■ Scriptures state Hebrews under Moses go to Palestine, ca. 1300 B.C.E. ❑ ■ Idea of lex talionis: “law of retaliation”; flood stories that destroyed societies On-going conflict with indigenous populations Expansion btw Syria & Sinai Peninsula under King David (1000970 B.C.E.) and Solomon (970-930 B.C.E.) ■ Capital city @ Jerusalem; relations w/ Mexopotamia, Egypt ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Moses and Monotheism ■ ■ Hebrews shared polytheistic beliefs of other Mesopotamian civilizations Moses introduced monotheism, belief in single god ❑ ❑ ❑ Denied existence of competing parallel deities Personal god: reward and punishment for conformity with revealed law The Torah (“doctrine or teaching”) ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Foreign Conquests of Israel/Israelites ■ Assyrian conquest, 722 B.C.E. ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ■ Conquered the northern kingdom Deported many inhabitants to other regions Many exiles assimilated and lost their identity as Israelites Had to pay tribute Babylonian conquest, 586 B.C.E. ❑ ❑ ❑ Destroyed Jerusalem Forced many into exile Israelites maintained their religious identity and many returned to Judea known as Jews ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * The Phoenicians ■ ■ City-states along Mediterranean coast after 3000 B.C.E. Extensive maritime trade ❑ ■ Dominated Mediterranean trade, 1200-800 B.C.E. Development of alphabet symbols ❑ ❑ Simpler alternative to cuneiform Spread of literacy ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Israel and Phoenicia, 1500-600 B.C.E. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Early Migrations – Indo-European and Bantu peoples Indo-European Migrations ■ ■ Common roots of many languages of Europe, southwest Asia, India (English, Greek, Sanskrit) Implies influence of a single Indo-European people ❑ ■ Probable original homeland: modern-day Ukraine and Russia, 4500-2500 B.C.E. Domestication of horses, use of Sumerian weaponry allowed them to spread widely ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Indo-European Migrations 3000-1000 B.C.E. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Implications of Indo-European Migration ■ ■ Hittites migrate to central Anatolia, ca. 1900 B.C.E., who have a close relationship with Mesopotamia and later dominate Babylonia Influence on trade ❑ ❑ ❑ Horses, chariots with spoked wheels (spread widely!) Iron metallurgy Migrations to western China, Greece, Italy also significant (spread of languages) ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Bantu Migrations, 3000-1000 B.C.E. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Bantu: “people” Intermittent migration throughout sub-Saharan regions ❑ Cause: Population pressures due to agricultural surplus Use of canoes in traveling networks of major rivers, iron tools/weapons to expand agricultural zone Over 500 variations of original Bantu language ❑ 90 million speakers By 1000 B.C.E., occupied most of Africa south of the equator ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Bantu Migrations, 2000 B.C.E.-1000 C.E. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Implications of Bantu Migrations • • • • • • Spread of language family Some groups conquered and/or absorbed Spread of agricultural techniques and other technologies such as pottery, iron-working Spread of Bantu culture and religious practices -Prayers to intercessors, e.g. ancestor spirits Still, great variations among populations remained * Harappan Society and Its Neighbors, ca. 2000 B.C.E. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Harappan Politics Large cities, but no evidence of royal/imperial authority Taxes in grain, cities = center of authority Cities designed in grid system—developed! Walled cities, VERY developed sewage and drainage systems Mohenjo-Daro: Great Bath Big questions: undeciphered script, so no written records Harappan Society and Culture ■ Evidence of social stratification ❑ ■ ■ ■ Dwelling size, decoration Harappan civilization: influence on later Indian culture Statues, figurines, and illustrations reflect a tradition of art and metallurgy Venerated goddesses of fertility -> fertility cults ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization ■ Reasons for disappearance unclear ❑ ❑ ❑ Excessive deforestation (erosion), loss of topsoil Earthquakes? Flooding? ■ ■ ■ ■ Evidence of unburied dead No evidence of criminal or military violence Disappearance by 1500 B.C.E. Harappan traditions survived – agricultural practices, religious beliefs, and urban traditions ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * The Early Aryans ■ ■ ■ ■ Migrated into South Asian subcontinent as part of IndoEuropean migrations. Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle ❑ Cattle not sacred until many centuries later Religious and literary works: the Vedas (hymns, songs, prayers) ❑ Sanskrit: sacred tongue ❑ Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi, Urdu, Bengali ❑ Four Vedas (wisdom), most important Rig Veda ■ 1028 hymns to Aryan gods As they settled into India: caste system developed ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Prehistoric China: Yangshao Society ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 5000-3000 B.C.E. Middle region of the Yellow River valley Banpo village Painted pottery Bronze tools ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * The Earliest Dynasties ■ Xia ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ■ Shang ❑ ■ ca. 2200 B.C.E. Organized through village network Hereditary monarchy Flood control 1766-1122 B.C.E. Zhou ❑ 1122-256 B.C.E. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Shang: Political Kings ruled, used agricultural surplus used to pay off anyone who would help keep rule Advisors, ministers, military forces Network of walled towns with local rulers Capital = social, economic, political center—moved 6x Large, developed cities Shang: Economic Advances Controlled access to copper & tin ores Bronze metallurgy Horse-drawn chariots Small-scale trade with W & S neighbors (Malay Peninsula, Burma, Maldives)—physical geo problems Shang pottery found in Mohenjo-Daro… Shang: Religious Polytheism, but no supreme deity (king was NOT THE God) Ancestral veneration: belief that ancestors would support/protect family even after their death Idea that humans, animals (dogs) would serve the deceased in the afterlife Lots of swag buried with elites! Shang: Social Kings had many wives (polygamy), had favorites who were also buried with lots of awesome swag (Fu Hao) Human sacrifice: people could also serve as slaves, etc. in afterlife with kings Kings/elite buried in tombs; most robbed Patriarchal society, but women occasionally important Men increasingly “superior” during later Shang & Zhou dynasties Shang: Art & Technology Pictograph writing Walls protecting city made of pounded earth— super sturdy! Bronze statues Ivory artifacts Oracle Bone Inscriptions Oracle Bones and Early Chinese Writing ■ Used for communicating with spirit world, determining future ❑ ❑ ■ ■ Question written on animal bones, turtle shells Then heated over fire; cracks examined for omens Early archaeological evidence of Chinese writing Evolution of Chinese script ❑ Pictograph to ideograph ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Oracle Bone from Shang Dynasty ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Nomadic Peoples of Central Asia ■ Steppe nomads ❑ ❑ ■ ■ Poor lands for cultivation, extensive herding activities Horses domesticated ca. 4000 B.C.E., bronze metallurgy in 2900 B.C.E. Extensive trade with sedentary cultures in China Tensions: frequent raiding ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Early Mesoamerican Societies, 1200 B.C.E.-1100 C.E. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Origins of Mesoamerican Societies ■ Migration across Bering land bridge? ❑ ■ ■ ■ Probably 13,000 B.C.E., perhaps earlier By sea from Asia? By 9500 B.C.E. reached southernmost part of South America Hunter/gatherer societies ❑ Evolve into agricultural societies ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Olmec – The Foundation Civilization of Central America ■ ■ ■ 1200-100 B.C.E. The “rubber people” Ceremonial centers ❑ ■ San Lorenzo, La Venta, Tres Zapotes Olmec heads ❑ ❑ ❑ Up to 10 ft. tall, 20 tons Transported by dragging, rolling on logs 1000 workers per head ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Olmec Society ■ ■ ■ Probably authoritarian in nature Ruling elite/priests = heads of societies Large class of conscripted laborers to construct ceremonial sites Also tombs for rulers, temples, pyramids, drainage systems Human sacrifices Calendar, colossal human heads (wide noses, big lips) Traded jade objects, basalt ❑ ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Mysterious Decline of Olmecs ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Ceremonial centers destroyed No evidence of warfare Revolution? Civil war? Natural disaster? Resource depletion? Deliberate destruction?? All of the above? ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Maya – Classical Mesoamerica ■ ■ ■ Huge cities discovered in nineteenth century 300 B.C.E.-900 C.E. Terrace farming ❑ ❑ ■ Cacao beans ❑ ❑ ■ ■ Maize Cotton Chocolate Also served as currency Major ceremonial center at Tikal Writing system of pictograms ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. City of Teotihuacan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Located in the Highlands of central Mexico Lakes in area of high elevation Obsidian tools, orange pottery Village of Teotihuacan, 500 B.C.E., expands to become a large agricultural city ❑ Important ceremonial center Extensive trade network, influenced surrounding areas Begins to decline ca. 650 C.E., sacked in middle of eighth century, burned city * ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Andean Societies ■ ■ ■ ■ Migration into South America ca. 12,000 B.C.E. Climate improves ca. 8000 B.C.E. Largely independent from Mesoamerica Highly individualized due to geography ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Chavín Cult ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ New religion in central Andes, 900-300 B.C.E. Little known about particulars of religion Probably designed to promote fertility & abundant harvests Intricate stone carvings Cult may have arisen when maize became an important crop During this era Andean society became increasingly complex ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * The Mochica (Moche) State ■ ■ ■ Valley of the Moche River Dominated northern Peru, 300-700 C.E. Painting survives ■ ■ ■ ■ Some represent individual heads Others represent gods/deities & demons Others show people doing work, etc—evidence of complex society with specialization of labor One of many states in region, none able to consolidate into empire ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Early Societies of Oceania, 1500 B.C.E.700 C.E. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Oceania ■ ■ ■ ■ Prehistoric land bridges, lower seas permit migration Outrigger canoes for open-sea travel Early hunter-gatherer societies in Australia until European colonization Early agriculture in New Guinea ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * Lapita Peoples ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Earliest Austronesian migrants to sail out into the Pacific Found throughout Pacific islands Agriculture, animal herding (pigs & chickens) Political organization based on chiefdoms Trade over open ocean (~2,800 miles) declines 500 B.C.E. ■ ❑ Items traded: shell jewelry, stone tools Greater independence of settlements results ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. * The Four Early River Valley Civilizations