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UNIT 1: WORLD WAR ONE (1914-1918)
UNIT 1: WORLD WAR ONE (1914 – 1918)
1.1.1
Terms
Imperialism: the policy of extending the authority of a nation over foreign countries through the
acquisition of colonies.
Nationalism: a sense of national consciousness that fosters loyalty to the country.
Triple Alliance: the alliance formed in 1882 between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy in an attempt
to isolate France.
Triple Entente: the 1907 alliance of Britain, France, and Russia in response to the rising powers of the
Triple Alliance.
Ultimatum: a final proposal of terms which, when rejected, may end negotiations and results in war.
1.1.2
Imperialist Nations 1900
1.1.3
Reasons for Imperial Expansion at the turn of the 20th century.
At the turn of the 20th century many of the world’s industrialized nations had already conquered
territories around the world, particularly in Africa and Asia. Why did these nations need more territory?
Below are 5 of the main reasons for such expansion.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
1.1.4
Raw Materials: Increasing industrialization and a rising standard of living stimulated the need
for raw materials (many from tropical areas). Countries needed to secure these raw materials to
sustain and grow a strong industrial base at home. Therefore, the growing industrial nations
needed to obtain lands where the raw material existed. Areas in Africa and Asia could supply
things like lumber and minerals which were needed.
Cheap Labour: Countries would occupy territory to obtain workers. For example, Europeans
needed labourers so they went to Africa and exploited the native population to obtain it. Many
of these natives were uprooted from their villages and compelled to work in forced labour
camps. The workers were used to directly gather the raw materials or work in the
manufacturing of these goods. In turn the conquering nation would increase profits.
Prestige and Power: Countries would take control of a territory in order to become more
powerful and increase national security by ensuring it did not fall into the hands of an enemy.
Also the greatness of a nation came to be measured largely in terms of its colonial possessions.
A country with many overseas territories strengthened its reputation throughout the world.
Markets: As industrialized nations grew they required not only the raw materials for
productions but also the markets in which to sell their goods. In order to sustain their growth,
imperialist nations conquered areas that would serve as new markets for products and services
produced at home.
Religion and Humanitarianism: Many western nations thought of their civilization as superior to
those of Africa and Asia. They felt duty bound to uplift and enlighten those whom they
considered the more “backward” societies of the world. This “White Man’s Burden”, as it was
coined, also included the notion of converting these civilizations to Christianity. For conquering
imperialist nations this was the excuse used when they occupied and took over new lands.
Origins/Causes of WW 1
WW 1 may have started in 1914, but the roots to its causes had been growing for many years prior to
that. It is generally recognized that there were 4 main contributing factors to the outbreak of world war
in 1914.
1)
Nationalism: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries many of the nations of Europe were
expressing strong feelings of nationalism that impacted the political climate within Europe. In
France nationalistic feelings were high because of the German occupation of Alsace-Lorraine,
which was populated mostly by French speaking people. In Austria-Hungary various ethnic
groups (Serb, Croats, Slovaks, etc) were wanting their freedoms and were expressing their own
pride causing conflict within the country. German nationalism was growing due to their strong
economy and desire to obtain territory and catch up to the other industrialized nations like
Britain and France. Finally British nationalism was centered on the idea of their duty to the
throne and the country. As a result, tensions among and within nations were high as clashing
ideas and desires created conflict.
2) Imperialism: European nations were scrambling for colonies in Africa and Asia in the early
1900`s (ex: France & Germany over Morocco). This era of imperialism came out of a country’s
need to search for raw materials, new markets and power. The acquisition of territories
increased a nation’s area of influence around the world. As each nation obtained more land
tensions increased among the imperialist countries as each wanted more territory.
3) Militarism: An arms race grew out of the desires of imperialism and growing nationalism.
European nations increased their military might. Many nations increased their military
expenditures by as much as 300% in the years leading up to the start of the war. Germany was
making an effort to challenge Britain for naval supremacy and become the dominant power in
Europe. However, Britain was not about to relinquish its position as the world’s leading power
and embarked on a large-scale armament program. At the same time France and Russia made
significant moves to increase the size of their armies.
4) Alliance Systems: In an attempt to protect the interests of nations and prevent war, countries
formed military alliances. On one side there was the Triple Alliance and on the other the Triple
Entente. Generally these alliances stated if one of the countries in the alliance were attacked
then the others would support them. These alliances heightened tensions because any crisis
affecting one nation affected its allies and it also raised the possibility that a single incident
could lead to a general war.
1.1.5
German Alliances Pre –WW1
German Chancellor, Otto von Bismark, engineered a series of alliances between 1879 & 1887 which
provided Europe with the illusion of peace and stability. These diplomatic initiatives were motivated
almost entirely by Bismark’s wish to isolate France so that the French could not seek allies and plan
revenge against Germany for being defeated in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71.
In 1879 Bismark and the Germans signed the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary and in 1882 he
negotiated the Triple Alliance that drew Italy into the pact. The members of this alliance promised that
if any one of them should be attacked, all three would wage warfare together against the aggressor.
Finally in 1887 Bismark persuaded Russia to sign a secret Reinsurance Treaty, whereby Germany pledged
its support to the Balkans while Russia assured Germany of its neutrality in the event of a French attack
on Germany. Bismark had achieved his goal of isolating France and securing Germany.
1.1.6
Chronology of the steps to war.
1) June 28 – Archduke Ferdinand of Austria assassinated in Bosnian city of Sarajevo by Bosnian
Serb nationalist.
2) July 23 – Austrian government gives Serbia 48hr ultimatum; does not agree on all terms; begins
to mobilize.
3) July 28 – Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia; Serbia turns to Russia for help
4) July 29 – Czar Nicholas agrees to help Serbia and mobilizes army
5) August 1 – Germany declares war on Russia; France mobilizes army
6) August 2 – Germany invades Belgium as part of Schiefflen plan for attacking France
7) August 3 – Germany declares war on France; Britain gives Germany an ultimatum to halt
invasion of Belgium
8) August 4 – No reply from Germany; Britain declares war on Germany; Canada automatically at
war as part of British empire; US declares neutrality
1.1.7
Impact of Assassination on outbreak on WW1
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in the summer of 1914 had a tremendous impact around
the world. For the parties initially involved with the incident the impact was felt almost instantaneously.
1) Serbian Nationalism: The assassination of the archduke of Austria indicated how strong Serbian
nationalism had become. The Serbians wanted to unite all Serbs into one great independent
nation, including those living under Austrian rule in Bosnia-Herzegovina. A group known as the
Black Hand (Serb nationalist organization) was dedicated to achieving this goal. They carried out
the assassination and were subsequently found, arrested and tried for the crime.
2) Austria-Hungarian/Serbian Relations: The relationship had historically been rocky as Austria had
possession of Serbian territories. After the assassination things worsened. The Austrians gave
Serbia an ultimatum which Serbia did not fully accept. As a result, Austria took a tougher stand
against Serbia because it wanted to crush Serb nationalism.
3) German Government Response: The Germans had at first asked Austria to use moderation in
their response to Serbia, but were ignored. However, they promised to give their full support to
Austria in whatever action they wanted to take. They believed that the Russians would not
intervene.
4) Russian Mobilization: Once Austria declared war on Serbia, Russia mobilized its troops,
Germany then threatened Russia and the wheels turned towards war. The strong Russian
stance started a chain of events that drew the remainder of Europe into war, as alliance
partners honoured their agreement.
1.1.8
German and British attitudes toward war.
Germany and Britain, on the eve of WW1, were two countries which had fundamentally different beliefs
and values. However, each side came to see a need for war in order to settle the differences between
them.
Germany was a nation on the rise and looked to the future where they could expand their power and
influence. Their attitude toward war was that it was a natural part of the growth of a nation, a necessity
if the country was to achieve a higher standing in the world. The Germans also wanted to break the
powerful Triple Entente which was blocking its emergence as a world power.
The British were a nation built on tradition. They had become the world’s most powerful nation and
wished to maintain that standing by looking at the past. War would only be necessary if this tradition of
power was threatened.
For Germany, this was a war to change the world and for Britain it was to preserve it. Germany was
being driven by a vision (to become the dominant world power) and Britain by tradition (to maintain the
status quo). These conflicting views and beliefs placed these countries at opposite ends and each nation
wanted to accomplish their goal.
1.2.1
Terms
Schlieffen Plan: Germany’s military strategy in 1914 for attacking France through its unprotected
Belgian border.
Battle of the Marne (1914): battle where British and French stopped the German advance in 1914.
Battle of the Marne (1918): allied counter offensive against the Germans in 1918 involving British,
French and American troops.
Battle of the Somme: fought mainly between the British and German armies in 1916. The plan was to
relieve the French at Verdun but the battles bleed both British and German armies and achieved little.
(Battle of Beaumont-Hamel and NL disaster)
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: signed between Russia and Germany. It took Russia out of the war in 1917 and
took huge amounts of Russian land away from the country.
Armistice: a temporary truce between two opposing forces.
1.2.2
WW1 Alliances Map
1.2.3
Trench warfare leads to stalemate
The nature of trench warfare lends itself to a defensive style of fighting. During WW1 on the western
front trench warfare was employed as the main battle strategy by both sides.
Life in the trenches was not pleasant and the conditions experienced by soldiers, while in the trenches,
was a significant factor leading to stalemate. Both the British and the German front lines dealt with such
thing as lice, trench foot, mice, etc. All of these things took a toll on the soldiers causing sickness and
impeding fighting.
Battle tactics and weapons technology used during trench warfare also made troop advancement
difficult. Using old battle tactics of a frontal charge, while facing the machine gun, led to tremendous
casualties for both sides.
(Note: In class hand-outs will be given to supplement this section)
1.2.4
Technology and WW1
Advances in technology and the types of weapons turned out by European and later American industries
made the war longer and bloodier and changed the nature of war.
The tank, developed in 1916 and used by the British in the Battle of the Somme, were primitive and
ineffective because crews were slow and the vehicles were often caught in the muddy battlefields.
However with mechanical improvements and more experienced drivers the tank became a very
effective troop mover and useful in overcoming battlefield obstacles toward wars end.
When war began, aviation technology was in its infancy. Airplanes were weak and unreliable. However,
military aviation made rapid advances and planes became more numerous, durable and powerful.
Planes took aerial photographs of enemy defences to observe enemy troop movements and study
artillery placements before attacks were launched. By 1915, they were taking a more offensive role.
Initially they had little impact but by the end of the war there were dogfights in the air and regular
bombing missions. The air plane had become a significant military factor.
On the seas there were no full scale naval battles between British and German fleets until the Battle of
Jutland in the North Sea in 1916. The British sailed towards Denmark to intercept the German fleet.
The British had superior naval strength yet failed to destroy the German fleet and suffered greater
losses. The battle ended in a draw but both sides claimed victory. The British retained control of the
North Sea and the Germans remained confined to the Baltic Sea for the remainder of the war. However
German submarines were successful in destroying British shipping. In 1915, Germany announced that
any allied merchant ships entering British water would be sunk by German U-Boats or submarines. By
October of 1917 the Germans had destroyed 8 million tonnes of shipping thus threatening Britain’s
lifeline to the US. The submarine war brought the US into the war.
Weapons Summary
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Machine Guns were the fastest firing device known, it mowed down waves of men in seconds
as they roared across no-mans land. It made one man as effective as 20-30 riflemen.
Tanks – noted above
Uboats/Sumbarines were very effective in launching sneak attacks and roam the seas inflicting
immense damage on merchant ships bringing supplies to Britain.
Airplanes went from observers to fighters with mounted machine guns; Zeppelins (blimps) were
used for bombing
Poison gas with chemicals such as chlorine and mustard gas were somewhat effective, but were
abandoned because if the wind was blowing at you, the gas would be blown back onto the
troops.
Grenades enabled soldiers to kill a group of troops from a distance and provided some safety for
the soldier throwing the grenade as it gave him time to get away.
1.2.5
War on the Western and Eastern Fronts
Western Front
The allies stalled the initial attacks by Germany during the first 2 months of fighting. By October 1914
both sides had dug a line of trenches and both faced each other across mud and barbed wire. The tragic
stalemate of trench warfare had begun. Over the next 4 years, the line of trenches remained virtually
stationary in spite of massive battles. Tremendous losses were experienced by both sides. Millions
were casualties and millions were conscripted or enlisted to take their place. When war ended on
November 11th, 1918 the lines were almost in the same position as they were when established in 1914.
Eastern Front
On the Eastern Front the lines were much more mobile. In August 1914, the battle of Tannenburg the
Germans easily defeated the Russians. For the Russians their supply system failed, troops were
exhausted and communications were poor. As a result the 2nd Russian army was captured (30 000 dead,
100 000 captured). In September 1914, at the Battle of Maurisan Lakes, the Russians fought bravely but
by 1917, 3 million Russians were dead or captured. Shortly after the Russians were forced to abandon
the war on the Eastern Front and the Germans moved the majority of the forces to the Western Front.
1.2.6
America enters WW1
At the start of the war the Americans proclaimed neutrality (“splendid isolation”) stressing that they had
to be “impartial in thought and in actions”. As the war progressed, certain incidents occurred making
impartiality impossible to stand by. The following events helped swing American opinion and ultimately
drew the Americans into the war.
Sinking of the Lusitania: On May 7th, 1915 the British liner, The Lusitania was torpedoed by a
German U-boat off the coast of Ireland. The Germans believed it was carrying ammunition for
the allies. Among the 1198 victims, there were 128 Americans. The incident shocked the U.S
and started to turn public opinion in the U.S against Germany. However, they did not enter the
war at this point.
2) The Zimmerman Telegram: American public opinion turned towards war when newspapers
published the Zimmerman Telegram. It was a secret message from the German foreign
secretary Alfred Zimmerman to the Mexican government. It stated that if Mexico joined
Germany against the U.S that Mexico could, “regain lost territory in Texas, New Mexico, and
Arizona.” The United States government felt tremendous pressure from the public to declare
war at this point, but did not.
3) Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: In early 1917, Germany proclaimed unrestricted submarine
warfare, which meant sinking any ship that sailed into restricted areas as outlined by Germany.
The Germans wanted to cut off supplies to Britain, which would lead to a quick surrender before
the U.S could enter the war. As a result of the action the U.S cut off relations with Germany and
1)
turned towards war. In April 1917, they declared war on Germany stating they were, “fighting
to make the world safe for democracy”.
1.2.7
American influence on WW1
The entry of the United States was of significant to the outcome of WW1, however they started slowly.
The U.S was unable to significantly add to the war effect in Europe for almost a full year. Time was
needed to enlist, conscript, mobilize and train troops. Also, they needed time to prepare materials to
fight a war. Thus, 1917 was a year of hardship for the allies in Europe.
By late 1917 and early 1918, 50 000 American troops were landing in Europe each month. The arrival
boosted morale of soldiers who had been fighting for over three years. However, only six full divisions
had arrived by March (120 000 – 180 000). The Germans realizing this pushed for a decisive victory.
From March to July the Germans attacked and made some advances to positions not held since 1914.
In a counterattack on July 1918, the Second Battle of the Marne, the Americans helped the allies push
the Germans back. This turned the tide of the war as the Germans were sent into retreat for the
remainder of the war. The allies with American assistance now had the initiative.
At sea, U.S battle groups almost immediately helped the British in stopping the German U-boats by
providing extra destroyers for convoy work and laying mines. Also merchant ships brought extra
supplies of food and munitions to help the allied cause.
Perhaps the timing of the American entry into the war was just as important as the resources they
provided. In March 1918 the Russians withdrew from the war, which allowed the Germans to move
more troops to the Western Front. As well, the Germans now had control of agricultural regions in
Russia which they used to relieve food shortages. Therefore, it can be said that the arrival of the
Americans with fresh troops and resources counteracted the advantage gained by the Germans with the
Russian withdrawal.
1.2.8
Impact of WW1 on Canada
At the start of the war Canada was a young nation taking their lead from the more experienced British,
however by wars end this would be very different. WW1 impacted Canada in 3 main ways; politically,
economically, and socially.
1)
Politically: Canada was no longer isolated from the rest of the world as it had been prior to
1914. Canada took its place at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and was given representation
in the League of Nations. There was recognition given of Canada’s war effort (particularly at
Vimy Ridge) and it contributed greatly to national pride. Canada had been transformed from a
colony of Britain into a nation of its own.
2) Economically: Factories were built/transformed to produce guns, ammunition, ships, airplane
parts, trucks, etc. The economy was linked to industrial production as well as agriculture,
lumbering, fishing, and mining. By the end of the war, Canada’s economy had been transformed
into a growing industrial nation. Canada emerged a stronger and more prosperous nation with a
new economy.
3) Socially: The status of women changed during the war. Between 1914 – 1918 women played a
major role on the home front. They replaced male workers in industry, commerce, and
agriculture taking over jobs that had been traditionally reserved for men. Approximately 20 000
workers in munitions factories and aircraft manufacturing. Thousands volunteered at home and
overseas women served as nurses, ambulance drivers, ran canteens and administrative tasks.
By the end of the war, opposition to women’s suffrage had dissolved. Women, as a result, won
the right to vote in federal elections in 1918.
1.3.1
Wilson’s 14 Points
U.S President Woodrow Wilson outlined his 14 points in January 1918; it was his plan for peace at the
end of WW1.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
1.3.2
No more secret agreements/alliances
Free navigation of the seas
Free trade
Countries are to reduce armaments/military
All colonies are to become self-governing
German army to leave Russia and left to develop on its own
Belgium to be evacuated of German troops
France liberated and to recover lost territory (Alsace – Lorraine)
Italy’s borders adjusted to allow all Italians to live in Italy
Austria allowed to develop on its own
Balkan states to be evacuated of troops
Turkish people to govern themselves, non-turks govern themselves
Creation of an independent polish state
Creation of the League of Nations
France & British Objectives at Paris Peace Conference
France and Britain were very much involved in the setting of terms at the peace conference at the end
of the war, however, they had different goals.
France had 2 goals they were insistent upon achieving;
1) National Security: To ensure national sovernity France wanted to remove the threat of German
military power. France demanded the return of Alsace-Lorraine, which they lost to Germany.
They also demanded the German Rhineland to serve as a buffer zone between the two
countries. However, if France could not have the Rhineland, it demanded the region to be
neutralized. The compromise was a demilitarized zone, with no German troops within 50km of
the Rhine and an Allied force would be in the area for 15 years.
2) Financial Reparations: France wanted compensation for losses during the war. Northern France
had been devastated after four years of German occupation. The Germans also destroyed what
was left as they retreated (fields, mines, factories, railways, etc). France negotiated reparation
payments in the treaty to cover the costs
Britain had 1 main goal;
1) The British wanted to ensure security of the sea lanes to its empire. This meant that German
sea power had to be crippled. This was achieved by reducing the German navy to a token force
of 6 warships, prohibiting German submarines and redistributing German colonies to the allies.
Britain was not prepared to support French demands for huge reparations payments or
territorial goals.
1.3.3
The main terms of the Treaty of Versailles
The main terms of the Treaty of Versailles that were presented to Germany were as follows;
1) Territorial Changes:
a) Alsace-Lorraine to be returned to France
b) Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia to receive German border areas
c) Poland re-established as an independent state with access to the Baltic sea (the
Polish Corridor to Danzig)
d) Danzig to be a free city under the League of Nations
e) Germany to give all overseas colonies to the League of Nations; mandates for
administrating former German colonies assigned to Britain, France and Japan
2) Military Terms
a) German army reduced to 100 000
b) Germany forbidden to have an air force
c) Most German naval vessels, including the submarine force, to be handed over to the
allies
d) Germany forbidden to have heavy military frontier fortifications
3) Admission of War Guilt
a) Germany forced to accept responsibility for starting the war
4) Reparations
a) Germany to pay war reparations to France and Belgium for damages caused during
the war
b) Germany to pay reparations for shipping damages by turning over part of its
merchant marine fleet
c)
5) Other Terms
a) Germany to cede Saar coal mines to France for fifteen years
b) Allied troops to occupy the Rhineland for fifteen years
c) East bank of Rhine to be demilitarized
1.3.4. Treaty of Versailles – Just or Unjust?
Review notes and handouts on the topic, make your own conclusions.
1.3.5
Establishing the League of Nations
The League formally came into existence on January 20, 1920 with its headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland. Its ideas were optimistic and noble while its establishment hoped to do the following;
1)
2)
3)
4)
Deal with disputes among nations
Prevent war
Protect independence of countries and safeguard borders
Encourage each country to reduce armaments
As it eventually turned out, the League of Nations was not successful in following its aims.
1.3.6
Impact of the Treaty of Versailles
In May 1919, the allies summoned a German delegation to Versailles and told them to sign the treaty.
At first the Germans refused to sign such a severe treaty. When the allies threatened to renew
hostilities, the Germans had no choice but to sign. The date was June 28, 1919, exactly 5 years to the
day of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand.
The treaty created a controversy from the very beginning and would be used later by German leaders to
illustrate how unfairly the world was treating Germany. The terms of the treaty would change the face
and direction of Germany.
Reparation payments led to staggering inflation and economic collapse. To make the payments, the
German government printed paper money until the German currency was worthless. The impact was
great; in 1918 a loaf of bread was 0.69 marks, in 1922 it was 163 marks, in 1923 it was 201 billion marks.
This was called hyperinflation and led to the German people facing much hardship.
The military restrictions imposed on Germany were seen as harsh and humiliating. Thousands of
demobilized troops, resenting the terms of the treaty and disgruntled with the political system that
could make a better deal, joined right wing political groups. The groundwork for the emergence of the
Nazi party had been laid.
The treaty provided fertile ground for propaganda against the Allies treatment of Germany and was
employed with great success. German violations of the treaty grew bolder and more flagrant until
finally Hitler effectively killed it in the early 1930’s.
In reality the treaty had been a missed opportunity. They had made “a peace which was no peace”.
Europe had not been made safe for democracy. It has been said that, “defeat was snatched from the
jaws of victory”, while disillusion, resentment and despair were the seeds for future conflict.