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AP Psychology
AP Exam Review
Introduction to Psychology
Empiricism, functionalism,
structuralism
Modern psych is 100 years old
Stems from the field of
philosophy
Psychology is defined as the
scientific study of thought and
behavior and the mind.
Approaches/Perspectives
Biological/Neuroscience
Evolutionary
Behavioral genetics
Psychodynamic / Psychoanylitic
Behavioral
Cognitive
Social-Cultural
Research and Critical
Thinking in Psychology
Problems arising from
non-scientific study
Hindsight Bias
Overconfidence
Psychology Research/Study
Positives and Negatives of each
Scientific method
Case study
Naturalistic Observation
Survey
Sampling (false consensus
effect)
Correlations
Scatterplots
Positive vs. Negative
correlation
Illusory correlation
Correlation vs. Causation
Experimentaion
Double blind procedure
Placebo
Experiment vs control
group/conditions
Dependent and independent
variables
Statistical Measurement
Mean, mode, median
Range of scores
Standard deviation
Neuroscience/Biology
Neural Communication
Neuron, dendrites, axon,
myelin sheath
Action potential
Refractory period
Synapse
Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
GABA
Glutamate
Endorphins
Nervous System
Central vs. Peripheral nervous
system
Sensory, motor and
interneurons
Somatic and autonomic
systems
Sympathetic vs.
parasympathetic
The Brain
Lesions
CT, MRI, PET, f-MRI, EEG
Brainstem, medulla, thalamus, cerebellum,
limbic, system, amygdala, hypothalamus,
cerebral cortex, glial cells
Lobes - frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
Assoc areas - wernicke, brocas,
Brain (continued)
What is aphasia?
What is plasticity?
Corpus callosum and split brain
Hemispheric differences and
specialties of each side (right
vs. left)
Endocrine System
Hormones (and difference
from neurotransmitters)
Adrenal and pituitary glands
Impact of adrenaline
Impact of endocrine system on
sex
Nature vs. Nurture Debate
Nature
Chromosomes and numbers, types,
etc
Natural selection, Darwin, evolution
Twin studies (especially separated)
Temperament issues
Molecular genetics
Nurture
Prenatal environment
Peer Influence
Cultural Influence (Personal space)
Gender roles
Gender identity and gender typing
Gender schema theory
Social Learning theory
Developmental Psych
Prenatal and Newborn
Zygote, embryo, fetus
Teratogens and fetal alcohol
syndrome
Reflexes - rooting, sucking, etc
What is maturation?
Cognitive Development
Schemas - assimilation,
accomodation
Piaget’s cognitive stages
Object permanence,
conservation, egocentric,
theory of mind (autism)
Social Development
Importance of body contact
early on
Critical period, imprinting
Importance of responsive
parenting
Attachment styles and issues
Parenting styles - authoritarian,
authoritative, permissive
Adolescence
Puberty and differences in boys vs. girls
Primary vs. secondary sex
characteristics
Menarche and spermarche
Frontal lobe vs limbic system
development and issues it causes
Kholberg’s stages of morality
General social
development
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial
Identity, intimacy, generativity
Adults - menopause, male
changes?
Physical changes in aging
Alzheimers
Crystallized vs. fluid intelligence and
age impact
Social clock
Sensation
Basic sensation issues
Difference between sensation and
perception
Bottom-up vs top-down processing
Absolute and difference thresholds (JND)
Weber’s Law
Signal detection theory
Subliminal truths and falsehoods
Sensory adaptation
Vision
Transduction
Pupil, iris, lens, retina
Accomodation
Nearsighted vs farsighted and causes
Rods, cones, optic nerve, fovea, feature
detector
Blind spot vs blindsight
Parallel processing
Trichromatic color theory, color blindness
Opponent process theory and color
constancy
Hearing
Frequency, waves, pitch, decibels
Middle and inner ear, cochlea and
the parts of each and what they
do
Place vs frequency theory
Sound location
Conduction vs sensorineural loss
Other Senses
Impact of touch
Pain - gate control theory
Phantom limb sensation
Taste (4 basic ones and where
located)
Olfaction, smell and chemical
senses
Kinesthesis and vestibular senses
Perception
Selective Attention
Cocktail party effect
Change blindness
Perceptual Illusions
Visual capture
Gestalt
Figure-Ground
Grouping (proximity, similarity, continuity,
connectedness, closure)
Binocular vs monocular cues
Phi-phenomenon and stroboscopic
Perceptual constancy (Muller - Lyer illusion)
Perceptual Contstancy
Adaptation
Perceptual set
Context effects (include
cultural)
Human factors psychologists
ESP
Parapsychologists
Types of ESP
Claims vs modern psychology
views
States of Consciousness
Waking consciousness
Importance of daydreams and
who has them more as well as
fantasies
Levels of Consciousness
(Freud)
Sleep and dreaming
Biological rhythms (all four types)
Circadian rhythm
All stages of sleep and various wave types
as well as sleep spindles
Effects of sleep deprivation
90 min sleep cycles, REM, REM rebound,
etc.
Sleep Disorders (apnea, narcolepsy, etc)
Dreaming (latent vs. manifest content)
Drugs and consciousness
Dependence, withdrawal and
addiction
Classifications and names
(depressants, hallucinogens,
stimulants, barbituates,
opiates, etc.)
The effects of each type
Ecstasy
Other consciousness issues
Hypnosis - what it is, It’s use
and who is best candidate to
fall into it
Near death experiences
Dualists vs monoists
Learning
General Learning
Definition of learning
What is associative learning?
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov and Watson (behaviorism)
Pavlov’s dog (US, CS, UCR, UCS)
Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous
recovery
Generalization vs discrimination
Applications of classical conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Skinner and Skinner (operant)
chamber
Shaping behavior
Primary vs. secondary reinforcers
All Reinforcement schedules and
how each may be used
Positive vs negative reinforcers and
punishments
Cognitive map and latent learning
Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation
Observational Learning
Modeling, mirror neurons
Bandura’s experiment (bobo
doll)
Impact of TV and other media
Prosocial behavior
Memory
Memory in General
Flashbulb memories
Encoding, storage, retrieval
Sensory, short term, long term
memory
Automatic vs. effortful (rehearsal)
Serial and spacing effects
Visual, semantic, acoustic
encoding
Imagery, mnemonics, chunking
Storage
Iconic vs echoic memory
Short term (working memory)
Long term memory
Synaptic changes (LTP)
Implicit vs explicit memory
Hippocampus, cerebellum
and amygdala uses in memory
Retrieval
Recall vs recognition
Priming
Deja-vue
Mood congruance and
memory
Forgetting
Sins of forgetting, distortion,
intrusion
Interference (proactive and
retroactive)
Motivated forgetting or repression
Misinformation effect
Source amnesia
Constructed memories
Thinking and Language
Thinking
Cognition, concepts, prototypes
Algorithms, heuristics, insight
Confirmation bias
Fixation, mental set, functional fixedness
Representative and available heuristics
Framing, belief bias, etc.
Language
Phonemes, morphemes,
grammar, semantics, and
syntax
Child stages (babbling, etc
and ages)
Linguistic determinism
Intelligence
Testing and Intelligence
Mental Age and IQ (Binet, Terman, etc)
Factor analysis vs. general intelligence
Savant syndrome
Anylitical, Creative, Practical intelligence
Emotional intelligence and factors of it
Creativity and 5 aspects of it
Processing, perceptual and neurological
speed
Assessing Intelligence
Aptitude vs achievement tests
WAIS
Standardization, reliability, validity
Content vs predictive validity
Mental retardation and Down’s syndrome
Levels of retardation
Genetic and environmental influences
Bias (stereotype threat, etc.)
Motivation
General Concepts
Drive-reduction theory and homeostasis
Incentives
Maslow’s Hierarchy of motivation
The brain and hunger (hypothalamus) as
well as set point and metbolism
Eating disorders (causes and symptoms)
Sexual Motivation
Alfred Kinsey and his and other’s findings
Sexual response cycle (Masters and
Johnson) {Include refractory period}
Sexual disorders and psychosexual
disorders
Effects of estrogen and testosterone and
the changes and effects over lifetime
Impact of external stimuli
Sexual scripts and potential problems
Sexual orientation connections and issues
Belonging and Work
Survival and a need to belong and
have satisfying relationships for
happiness
Flow, I/O psychology, other work
issues
Interviewer illusion
Achievement motivation
Task leadership vs social leadership
Theory X vs Theory Y managment
Emotion
Theories
James Lange vs. Cannon Bard
Two-factor theory
Appraisals and fight or flight
Two Dimensions
Positive vs negative valence
Arousal and Nervous system
Parasympathetic vs
sympathetic
Arousal effects on easy vs
difficult tasks
Polygraph tests - accuracy
and how they work
Expressing Emotion
Nonverbal and women vs men
detecting and showing
Difference in culture and
expressing emotion
Facial Expressions
Impact of manipulating facial
feedback
Experiencing Emotions
Fear - evolutionary concept
Anger
Feel-good-do-do good
phenomenon
Adaptation level phenomenon
Relative deprivation
Stress and Health
Stress and Illness
Various appraisals of stress and
positive or negative responses
General adaptation syndrome
Life events that are stressors
Impact of perceived control of
events
Optimism vs Pessimism
Type A vs Type B personality
Psychophysiological ilnesses
Lymphocytes and immune system
and stress
Promoting Health
Exercise and mood impact on
health
Impact of family and social support
Impact of faith and spirituality on
health
Modifying behaviors - smoking,
obesity, nutrition
Personality
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Levels of consciousness
Id, ego, superego
Psychosexual stages oral, anal, phallic,
latency, genital
Oedipus and electra complex, (identification,
fixate, etc.)
Defense mechanisms (repression, regression,
projection, rationalization, displacement, etc.)
Tests (Projective - TAT, free assoc, Rorshach)
Neo-Freudians
Adler, Horney, Jung
Collective conscious
Criticisms of Freud
Humanistic Perspective
Rogers, Maslow
Self-actualization
Client-centered (unconditional pos
regard)
No evil side and criticism of it
Trait Perspective
Traits
Endomorph vs mesomorph
Various Personality tests (MMPI,
etc.)
Eysenk’s 16 factors in 4 poles
The Big 5 factors
Social Cognitive
Perspective
Reciprocal determinism
External vs Internal locus of
control
Learned helplessness
Optimism and attributional
styles
Other personality factors
Spotlight effect
Self-esteem
Cultural factors
Self-serving bias
Individualism vs collectivism
Terror-management theory
Disorders
General Disorder Info
4 criteria of disorders
Medical model
DSM (It’s use and classifying
disorders)
Neurotic vs psychotic disorders
Insanity Defense
Anxiety Disorders
Generalized anxiety
Panic disorder and panic
attacks
Phobias and difference from
fears
OCD
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Mood Disorders
Major depression (symptoms, etc.)
Bipolar (Manic -depression)
Creativity and Manic episodes
Suicide statistics, reasons, warning signs
Dysthymic disorder
Loneliness and causes
Dissociative Disorders and DID
Schizophrenia
Symptoms
Subtypes (paranoid, catatonic,
disorganized, undifferentiated, residual)
Dopamine connection
Brain anatomy findings
Genetic factors
Positive vs negative symptoms
Personality Disorders
Schizoid
Avoidant
Borderline
Histrionic
Narcissistic
Anti-social (symptoms, actions, etc.)
Therapy
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic
differences
Goals, methods, costs, time, etc
Resistance and transference
Freud
Humanistic
Client-centered
Active listening
Unconditional positive regard
Carl Rogers
Behavior
Counter-conditioning
Exposure and desensitization
Aversive conditioning
Token economy
Cognitive
Change irrational thoughts
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
Good for depression - why?
Biomedical
Eclectic approach
Anti-psychotic drugs for schizophrenia
Anti-anxiety
Anti-depressants
Know how they work on
neurotransmitters specifically or other
psycho-physical issues
Social Psychology
Issues
Fundamental attribution errors,
etc.
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
Role playing affects attitudes
Cognitive-dissonance
Social Influence
Conformity (Solomon Asch
experiment)
Reasons for conformity
Obedience (Millgram experiment)
Group Influences (social loafing,
deindividuation, group polarization,
groupthink, minority influence)
Social Relations
Prejudice and stereotypes
Social roots of prejudice
(scapegoat)
Ingroup vs outgroup and ingroup
bias
Just-world-phenomenon
Aggression (include biology)
Frustration-aggression principle
Impact of media on aggression
and violence
Other Social issues
Principles or reasons for
attraction
Romantic vs companionate
love
Altruism and lack of it
Bystander effect
Social exchange theory
Good Luck!!!