Download Australia`s Love Affair with Salt

a whitepaper by Dr Barbara Santich
Australia's Love Affair
with Salt
100 years of SAXA®
in our kitchens
Celebrating 100 years
2
D R B arbara S a n t i c h
internationally renowned
food historian
Dr Barbara Santich is an internationally renowned food historian whose research
and writing explores the role of food in culture. Barbara is the author of six books, including
the award-winning Looking for Flavour (1996, new edition 2009); The Original Mediterranean
Cuisine (1995); and In the Land of the Magic Pudding: A Gastronomic Miscellany (2000). She
has been a columnist for various Australian newspapers and magazines and has contributed
articles to a wide range of Australian and international publications, and has a long list of publications
in academic and scholarly journals. She teaches courses in food writing and food history and culture
at the University of Adelaide. Her next book will focus on Australia's gastronomic heritage and the
stories behind the foods and recipes that represent characteristic Australian responses to unique
Australian situations.
Justin North
Restaurateur, head chef of two
hatted Becasse, Saxa® ambassador
Salt is absolutely essential in any kitchen. Thanks to a myriad of cooking programs, at-homecooks are developing their understanding of what salt can do in the kitchen. The diverse range of
salt available on supermarket shelves today is also indicative of people’s growing interest in food
and cooking. There is a greater understanding that there are different salts for different purposes –
whether it’s Sea Salt Flakes crushed directly onto a finished dish to sharpen flavour, cut acidity and define
sweetness, or Sea Rock Salt when cooking (think hearty, slow-cooked food), or for curing and pickling.
In my kitchen, I can’t live without my mortar and pestle, and a good set of sharp knives. The same goes
for salt; it is an essential part of my cuisine and a fundamental for my cooking. Learning to season food was
drilled into me at an early age. The first thing I ever learnt in cooking was to taste, season, and taste again.
I now keep my salt as close to the cooking as possible. Keeping it within arm’s reach allows me to season
my food as I go.
While salt can lift the flavour of your dish, it can also ruin it if you’re not using the correct salt or tasting your
food. Learn to taste regularly when cooking. As a recipe develops, so do the flavours. Taste the food, add
a pinch of salt and taste again. Be sure to taste before and after seasoning to ensure you have the balance
of flavours just right. Knowing when to stop will come with experience, but you should also follow your
instincts. But most of all, have fun with it!
Happy Birthday SAXA®. I’m looking forward to what the next 100 years of seasoning will look like.
A b o u t saxa ®
Established in Australia in 1911, SAXA® quickly earned the reputation for reliable quality
in the kitchens and dining rooms of the nation. Since those early days, the SAXA® brand has
been offering increasingly relevant products to ensure Australian families have the right seasoning
for every occasion; SAXA® has a range of salts for every occasion, and the range includes Rock Salt,
Table Salt, Cooking Salt, Sea Salt Flakes as well as the new Grinders.
The SAXA® Table Salt drum is the iconic flagship of the brand. An Australian favourite, the spout pours freely,
or sprinkles, is easy to wipe down, and the distinctive packaging is easy to find in the cupboard.
Sea salt flakes are made from sea-waters that sweep into SAXA®’s solar salt field and are then evaporated.
After harvesting, sea salt is dried to remove excess moisture and crushed to form fine crystals. The salt is
natural and free from any artificial additives. This age-old process gives SAXA® Sea Salt Flakes an intense
flavour so less salt is required.
3
100 years of Salt
Preserving and Seasoning
1900
1910
An advertisement (Argus, Monday 22 Jan 1900, p. 4) for Cerebos table salt in 1900
vaunts its 'strengthening and constitution building properties,' which could compensate
for the deficiencies of white bread, made from refined flour without the bran. It is therefore
'invaluable in the daily food of growing children, delicate mothers, and all brain workers'.
Practical Australian Cookery (1909) notes that salt should never be sprinkled on a joint
for roasting, explaining that it 'opens the pores and allows juices to escape'. The SAXA®
trademark is first registered in Australia on September 26, 1911.
1920
SAXA® advertises free-running salt in sealed packets and pourer drums: 'A fine, dry,
free running salt, guaranteed absolutely pure' (Townsville Daily Bulletin, Thursday 25
December 1925, p. 7). Salt shakers, considered an American introduction, started
to replace the more traditional salt cellars around the turn of the century, and had the
advantage of keeping the salt hygienically clean and free of dust. Their disadvantage
was that in damp weather the salt would not pour. 'There is nothing so irritating, as a
salt shaker that won't shake,' notes the Perth Sunday Times (Sunday Times, Sunday 18
August 1929, p. 6S). 'Because of the annoyance of the clogged salt shaker,' it continues,
'most persons now use open salt dishes'. A standard remedy is to add a few grains
of rice to the shaker with the salt. Fine table salt is not, however, recommended for
breadmaking: 'Never use the fine table salt if you can avoid it because table salt is a
mixture of fine salt and starch (maize flour) which prevents it from caking,' advises the
Western Mail (Western Mail, Thursday 17 May 1928, p. 42).
1930
Salt is an essential ingredient in pot pourri. One recipe calls for three handfuls each of
damask rose petals, clove carnations and wall flowers, together with one handful of
rosemary, lemon thyme, lavender and marjoram, all dried in the sun, then arranged in
an earthenware pot on top of a layer of salt, the dried herbs and petals alternating with
a blend of chopped bay leaves, mint leaves, lemon rind and cloves. Once matured, the
mixture is used to fill small sachets for scenting drawers and linen cupboards. (Cairns
Post, Saturday 13 September 1930, p. 10)
1940
Various Australian states experience shortages of salt in the 1940s. In the final years of
the war insufficient labour is available to harvest the salt, and butchers and bakers are
among the first to feel the effects. Sydney supplies reach a critical level in mid-1947, only
relieved by the import of 400 tonnes of salt from Adelaide. The state's requirements at
that time are estimated at 3,500 to 4,000 tonnes per month. Tasmanian salt supplies are
interrupted in 1946 and 1948 as a result of lack of shipping.
4
1950
'Salt is an ally to the wise cook,' writes women's journalist Grace Hutchinson. 'If there
was no other seasoning available, salt still could and would make food palatable and
interesting. In every department of cookery from soup to nuts, salt is essential'. She
reminds her readers that 'salt added at the table does not blend with the food and
bring out the flavor as well as if it has been added in the cooking'. Her recommendation
is to add salt at the very beginning for soups and sauces, checking seasoning before
serving, and to cook potatoes and all green vegetables in salted water. New potatoes,
she adds, need more salt than old ones. (Argus, Tuesday 6 March 1951, p. 6)
1960
Margaret Fulton Cookbook advises seasoning roasts with salt and pepper before
cooking in the oven. The growing interest in herbs, spices and other flavourings leads to
the introduction of a range of flavoured salts – celery salt, garlic salt, and onion salt – in
the 1960s. Margaret Fulton also fosters the shift to freshly ground black pepper from
the pepper mill in place of pre-ground white pepper.
1970
1980
1990
Australians become increasingly interested in the cuisines of Asia, and their
bible is Charmaine Solomon's The Complete Asian Cookbook (1976), whose
recipes introduce home cooks to fish sauce, soy sauce, miso and sambal ulek as
flavourings and salty seasonings.
Hand-harvested fleur de sel, the fine film of salt that forms on the surface of the
shallow salt ponds on the Atlantic coast of France, becomes a new foodie favourite.
Mineral impurities from the seawater give this salt a softer, more subtle flavour. Fleur
de sel from Guérande is especially prized.
2000
In his book, The Food I Love (2005), chef Neil Perry writes: 'Well-seasoned food tastes
great and the flavour of most food is dramatically different when it is done well. By
seasoning I mostly mean salting. I always use sea salt, as it has a finer, cleaner taste
than other salts. When seasoning, think about this: salting heightens the natural
flavours of food'.
2010
In response to medical concerns about the role of salt in hypertension, a new range of
low-salt and reduced-salt foods start appearing on supermarket shelves: reduced-salt
butter and non-dairy spreads; reduced-salt soups and sauces; and reduced-salt cheese.
Salt moves into the value-added market as gourmet salts and salt rubs, flavoured with
herbs, chilli, porcini mushrooms, truffles or roasted kalamata olives; some are gently
smoked for flavour interest.
5
Cooking with Salt
HI STO RY
As refrigeration was not available until the 1880s salting was the standard method of preserving
fresh meat and fish as well as perishables such as dairy products. At this time butter and cheese
were still seasonal products in Britain, which meant they had to be prepared in such a way as
to cope with long periods of storage. If they were destined for ships' stores or for transportation
to distant colonies, salting was especially essential. It is therefore not surprising that Australians
developed a taste for salt.
The eventual success of refrigeration solved the issue of preserving
meat, but salting of both mutton and beef continued into the
twentieth century. Recipes for mutton hams continued to appear in
cookbooks and newspapers until the 1950s. In the country, bacon
and ham were also home-cured; sheep and ox tongues were
lightly brined before cooking to enhance flavour. Even fish were
salted; when Murray cod were still plentiful in outback rivers, large
specimens could be scaled, cleaned and split down the backbone,
then rubbed with salt, piled on top of one another and left under a
weight before air-drying for longer storage.
Cinnamon and bay leaf
preserved lemons
Quarter a few lemons and layer with a
healthy mix of rock salt, mixed with a
couple of bay leaves, cinnamon quills
and peppercorns. Preserve in air-tight
jars for at least 6-8 weeks. Use to give a
citrus salty edge to bbq dressings and
marinades.
Recipe created by Justin North SAXA®
ambassador, and owner of Becasse, Etch,
Quarter 21 and Charlie & Co.
6
Australian cooking in the nineteenth century and in the first half
of the twentieth century was essentially simple. Most dishes
on Australian tables derived from English tradition, though other
cultures and cuisines were also influential, and in the course of
the century most were adapted and gradually Australianised.
Meat, poultry and fish were typically seasoned with salt and
pepper and nothing else, though various sauces and condiments
could be added at the table. Shallot or onion were sometimes
added to stews and braises, and occasionally thyme, lemon rind,
parsley, nutmeg and mustard were included.
To counteract the plainness of cooking and monotony of meat
at every meal, numerous salty, spicy and tangy sauces, relishes,
pickles and chutneys were on hand to add to dishes, sometimes
during the cooking but more often to the individual’s plate
depending on personal taste.
It seems that Australians used considerable quantities of these condiments in the early 1900s.
Giving evidence to the Royal Commission on the Basic Wage in 1920, Professor W.A. Osborne
suggested that the average family of five required one bottle of tomato sauce and half of
Worcestershire sauce per week, together with half a bottle of pickles, one pint of vinegar, one
ounce of mustard and even more of curry powder.
NOW
It is near impossible to track trends in salt consumption, in quantitative terms, from the beginning
of the twentieth century to the present. Nevertheless, it is likely that the main sources of salt in the
diet have changed little over the century. According to Food Standards Australia New Zealand
(FSANZ), about 75% of salt in the average Australian diet today comes from everyday foods such as
bread and bread rolls (25%); meat, poultry and game products and dishes (24%); cereal products
and baked goods (17%); savoury sauces and condiments (8%); and cheese (5%). At the start of the
twentieth century Australians were eating considerably more bread (typically with butter), and more
meat – and possibly more salted meat – but probably fewer cereal products and baked goods,
(FSANZ. Fact Sheet 2011: How much
sodium and salt are we eating?).
And although Australians are now
eating more processed foods they
have modified their cooking practices.
The widespread adoption of olive oil,
olive oil sprays, non-stick pans and
barbecues has virtually eliminated
the previous custom of frying meat
in butter or dripping, both of which
were well salted a century ago. Where
butter is an ingredient in cakes – and
8%
today a far higher proportion of cakes
do not use any butter – unsalted
17%
butter is commonly specified.
5%
8%
Au s t ra l i a' s S a lt d i e t To day
17%
8%
5%
25%
17%
5%
21%
25%
8% 5%
24%
25%
8%
5%
25%
17%
Qualitatively, the way we season foods
FSANZ estimates
Breads
Cereals & Baked Goods
about 75% of salt
and use salt in17%
the kitchen have also
5%
8%
in the average
Meat24%
&
Savoury Sauces
evolved. In the early twentieth century
25%
Australian diet
Poultry
&24%
Condiments
21%
5%
it was believed that sprinkling salt on
today comes from
8%
21%
17%
25%
everyday
foods.
Other
Cheese
meat before cooking would harden
21%
it, and recipes instructed cooks to
24%
17%
season grilled steak and21%
chops at the
end of cooking and to serve them with a knob of butter. Since about the middle of the century, or at
24
least from 1968 when the Margaret Fulton Cookbook first appeared, accepted wisdom has been to
21%
brush steak and chops lightly with olive oil and season with a small pinch of pepper and salt.
21%
Similarly, the Margaret Fulton Cookbook advised seasoning roasts with salt and pepper before
24%
cooking in the oven. In contrast, Practical Australian Cookery (1909) noted that salt should never
be sprinkled on a joint for roasting, explaining that it 'opens the pores and allows juices to escape'.
Cookbooks published in the early twentieth century paid little attention to vegetables which
were typically cooked in boiling salted water, drained, then tossed with butter, pepper and salt,
with the occasional garnish of finely chopped parsley. In his best-known book, The Art of Living
in Australia (1893), Dr Philip Muskett called for more care to be applied in Australian cooking,
adding that most people 'seem incapable of understanding that these different vegetables are
worthy of being served in an infinite number of ways'.
7
In the twenty-first century recipes are far more imaginative. Vegetables
might be steamed, drizzled with olive oil and roasted in the oven, or
stir-fried with ginger and garlic. With these treatments, they retain more
flavour and require less seasoning, especially if fresh herbs are added
before serving.
Margaret Fulton can be credited with inspiring many of these changes,
not only through her best-selling cookbook (1.5 million copies sold
since 1968), but also her cooking features in Woman's Day from 1960
to 1979. She encouraged greater versatility with vegetables, suggesting
last-minute enhancements of chopped fresh herbs, browned butter and
toasted slivered almonds. Chefs today often favour raw or minimally
cooked vegetables tossed with a tangy dressing to accompany simply
grilled meats.
Roast pork rump
with crackling
Ingredients: (serves 4 as main)
• 100g SAXA® Sea Salt Flakes • 900g
pork rump or loin – fat and skin intact
• 60ml non-scented cooking oil (like
grape seed oil)
Method: Trim the pork and score the
skin with a sharp knife or blade about 2/3
of the way through the skin. Thoroughly
massage the SAXA® Sea Salt Flakes into
the skin and leave the pork uncovered in
the refrigerator overnight.
Pre-heat the oven to 190°C. Heat
a pan (must be suitable for oven)
over a medium heat and add the oil.
Place the pork, skin side down into
the pan, and gently caramelise the
skin until it is golden. Place pan into
the pre-heated oven and roast for
approximately 25-30 minutes. Remove
from oven and leave to rest in a warm
place for about 10 minutes.
To serve, carve the pork and crackling
into neat slices and serve with a
selection of roast vegetables.
Recipe created by Justin North SAXA®
ambassador, and owner of Becasse, Etch,
Quarter 21 and Charlie & Co.
8
Australians still use a great variety of packaged sauces and condiments
in cooking and at the table, but many of these – such as black bean
sauce or sweet chilli sauce – would have been totally foreign to cooks
a century earlier. Their growing familiarity with a range of different
cuisines is evident in their ready acceptance of spices and spice blends,
especially for North African and Middle Eastern dishes, as well as
indigenous products such as lemon myrtle and Tasmanian pepper.
Since the second half of the twentieth century Australians have
had access to an ever-increasing range of convenience foods, from
dehydrated soup mixes, frozen vegetables and cake and pastry mixes
in the 1950s to ready-to-use curry pastes and sauces, two-minute
noodles and microwavable pre-cooked rice. One consequence of
this trend to greater use of commercially manufactured ingredients is
that recipes have become more cautious with regards to seasoning.
Today's recipes generally advise checking the seasoning of a dish
close to the end of cooking and only then adjusting if necessary.
Throughout the twentieth century Australians could buy salt in three
basic forms: rock salt; coarse salt or cooking salt; and free-running
table salt; iodised versions of the latter two have been available since
the 1920s. Towards the end of the twentieth century new forms of salt
for cooking and table use were introduced, such as sea salt in soft
white flakes or rough greyish crystals. Later came fleur de sel from
the French Atlantic coast, Italian sea salt from Sicily, slate-coloured
smoked salt and the red Hawaiian salt, and in the last decade the pink
Murray River salt was launched.
As a more expensive alternative to common salt and free-running salt,
each of these new forms of salt offered, or was believed to offer, something
more than just salt. The French fleur de sel, in particular, contains mineral
impurities, which tend to soften the sometimes harsh flavour of salt.
Health and Salt
The association between high salt
non-dairy spreads; reduced-salt soups and
consumption and hypertension had long been
sauces; and reduced-salt cheese.
known to the medical profession, but it was
One of the dietary guidelines for Australian
only in 1982 that the National Heart Foundation
adults introduced in 1979 was 'Use less salt'.
included warnings about salt consumption in
This was modified in 1992 to 'Choose low salt
its Healthy Eating Guidelines. In the 1960s and
foods and use salt sparingly', and further altered
1970s, the Foundation's health messages had
in 2003. The current set of dietary guidelines
focused on overweight, fat and cholesterol.
advises Australians to 'take care to choose
'Salt is an acquired taste
foods low in salt'.
and often masks the true
Sensible, practical
flavour of food' noted the
advice on shopping
Guide to Healthy Eating
wisely and cutting
(1982). This contrasts
down on salt in cooking
•A teaspoon of salt in a pint of water
with the accepted
has been published
makes an effective gargle for sore
popular wisdom of
throats
in books such as
earlier times that salt
•A dessertspoon of salt, Epsom salts
Family Food (1987),
was important 'to make
and bicarbonate of soda in a basin
one of Gabriel Gaté's
food palatable and
of hot water soothes tired feet
cookbooks for the Antiinteresting', as reported
•Equal parts alum and salt, or even
Cancer Council.
by the Argus in 1951.
salt alone, relieves toothache
Using salt to
stay healthy
Since the 1990s
•Used for cleaning the teeth, salt can
In the 1980s the
harden gums, make teeth white and
food manufacturers
National Heart
sweetens the breath
have also heeded the
Foundation shifted
•A salt and water solution will help stop
message and have
its emphasis to the
the bleeding after a tooth is extracted
begun to reduce the
preventive benefits
•A small bag filled with salt and heated
salt content of their
of healthy eating for
then applied to the aching part relieves
products. Bread and
the whole population,
toothache, earache or headache
cereal manufacturers
not just the high-risk
have begun reducing
groups. The first Heart
the salt content of
Food Festival in 1987 introduced low-fat
some of their products from 2011, with other
and low-salt alternatives and succeeded in
products – processed meats, poultry, simmer
demonstrating not only that a demand for
sauces and soups – to be targeted in 2012.
such products could be created but also that
food manufacturers were willing to respond.
Health messages and campaigns by groups
The result was the development of the Heart
such as AWASH have increased awareness of
Foundation's Tick; foods approved to display
the risks associated with excessive salt intake,
the 'Tick' logo have to comply with prescribed and information about ways of reducing
standards, such as maximum levels of
salt intake, together with suggestions for
saturated fat and salt. A new range of low-salt alternatives to the basic seasonings of salt
and reduced-salt foods started appearing on
and pepper, are readily available from medical
supermarket shelves: reduced-salt butter and
centres and in popular magazines.
9
Nevertheless, like all health and dietary
reforms, it is likely that modifications
to salt consumption will be adopted
disproportionately across the population.
Consequently it could take quite a few
years to achieve the population-wide
reduction of nearly 30 percent from the
current FSANZ estimate of 5.5g of salt per
day (for Australians aged two years and
older) to the AWASH target of 4g of salt per
day (FSANZ. Fact Sheet 2011: How much
sodium and salt are we eating?; AWASH.
Statement on Australian Salt Intakes).
FS A N Z a i m f o r a
30% salt reduction
p o p u l at i o n w i d e
5.5g
salt per day
The growing popularity of vegetarian
meals and diets may encourage a
reduction in dietary salt as people turn to
unprocessed grains and pulses in place of
animal foods.
Those who are more health-conscious will
become more discriminating in choosing
and using salt for individual seasoning,
with low-sodium, potassium enriched
salt becoming more widely available
through supermarkets, as in France. At the
same time they will probably take greater
advantage of a broader range of low-salt
or reduced-salt options in manufactured
foods. Consumers concerned about their
sodium intake can check the label for the
amount of sodium per 100 grams (a ‘low
sodium’ product has no more than 120
milligrams of sodium per 100 grams).
4.0g
salt per day
FSANZ. Fact Sheet 2011: How much sodium and salt are we
eating?; AWASH Statement on Australian Salt Intakes.
Flavouring Salt
Place 2 drachms each of bay leaf, thyme, and basil in the oven till quite dried, pound them
in a mortar with 4 drachms each of grated nutmeg and cloves, and 2 each of white pepper,
allspice, and mace. When in fine powder, sift them all, and mix them with fine table salt,
thoroughly dried in the oven, in the proportion of 1oz. of the mixed spice to a pound of the
salt. Keep this spiced salt in an air-tight tin box. (1 drachm = 3.41g)
Flavouring Pepper
"Mignonette" peppers is much used for flavouring certain made dishes. It consists of pepper
corns roughly pounded with spice in various proportions. One can prepare the mixture in
accordance with the tastes of one's own household.
Queenslander, 13 February 1892: 317
10
100 Years Ago …
Culinary Hints
•Add a pinch of salt to mustard mixed with milk to
preserve the colour
•Add a pinch of salt to hot coffee just before serving to
bring out the flavour
•Add a pinch of salt when whipping egg whites or
cream to make them firmer
•Add a little salt to the water when boiling a cracked
egg to prevent the white running out
•Add a little salt to the water when peeling new
potatoes to prevent finger stains
•Sprinkle common salt over the bottom of the frying
pan before melting fat to prevent the fat from splashing
•Put a layer of salt in the bottom of the bread box and
cover with a layer of paper to keep bread fresh
The Future of
Salt in Australia
In recent years it's all been about the wow factor in
the kitchen, with molecular gastronomy focussing
on technique more so than taste. Going forward
I believe we will see a marrying of the two
where chefs and home cooks alike will use new
technologies to make the food taste amazing.
I also think we'll see a greater move towards local produce,
whether it's from your back garden or the local markets. This
will give restaurants (and home kitchens) their own individual
palette and as well as a sense of place.
Back to basics will also be rigueur du jour, where local
produce will be made the star on the plate. Implicit in all
this will be the role of salt, helping cooks to get the best out
of their produce. Think baby carrots in their simplest form,
enhanced only by one simple ingredient, salt. Perfect!
Salt will continue to be the hero ingredient in the kitchen, but
seasoning should not be looked upon as a process. Its role is
to add texture and more importantly, enhance the flavour.
Taste, season and taste again was the first thing I learnt in the
kitchen and I encourage you to do the same!
– Justin North
Chocolate mousse pots
with salted almond crunch
Ingredients: (serves 12) • 234g milk • 342g
thickened cream • 81g caster sugar • 100g
egg yolks • 224g milk chocolate. For the salted
almond crunch: • 180g blanched almonds • 1
tsp SAXA® Sea Salt Flakes • 750g caster sugar
• 200g water
Method: For the mousse, bring the milk, cream
and sugar to the boil. Pour over the chocolate
and mix well, allow to cool. Then strain the
chocolate mix over the yolks and mix well.
Transfer to serving cups and steam at 100°C for
20-25 minutes or until just set. Refrigerate and
allow to completely cool.
For the salted almond crunch, lightly roast the
almonds in the oven at 150°C until light tan in
colour, once removed from the oven toss in a
large bowl with the flake salt. The salt will stick
to the almonds due to the oils being released.
In a large heavy based pot add the sugar and
water, being careful not to spill the sugar up the
sides of the pot. Brush the sides with the water
just to be certain.
Place the pot over a high heat and caramelise
until dark golden in colour, stirring every couple
of minutes. Pour the caramel over the nuts onto
a tray and allow to set at room temperature.
Crush the caramel nuts into bite-sized pieces.
Cover the cool chocolate mousse pots with
caramel nuts and serve
Recipe created by Justin North SAXA® ambassador, and
owner of Becasse, Etch, Quarter 21 and Charlie & Co.
11
Celebrating 100 years
S e l e ct e d B i b l i o g ra p h y
AWASH. Statement on Australian Salt Intakes. Available for download from www.awash.org.au
Dietary Guidelines for Australians (2003). Available from www.health.gov.au/internet/healthyactive/
publishing.nsf/content/eating
Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Fact Sheet 2011: How much sodium and salt are we
eating. Available at http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/scienceandeducation/factsheets/factsheets2011/
howmuchsaltareweeati5230.cfm
Fulton, Margaret. The Margaret Fulton Cookbook. Dee Why West, NSW: Paul Hamlyn, 1968.
Gaté, Gabriel. Family Food. South Yarra, Vic: Anne O'Donovan, 1987.
Monro, Amy M. The Practical Australian Cookery. Sydney: Dymock's Book Arcade, 1909.
Muskett, Philip. The Art of Living in Australia. First publ. 1893. Kenthurst, NSW: Kangaroo Press,
1987.
Perry, Neil. The Food I Love. Sydney: Murdoch Books, 2005.
Santich, Barbara. What the Doctors Ordered: 150 Years of Dietary Advice in Australia. South
Melbourne, Vic: Hyland House, 1995.
Solomon, Charmaine. The Complete Asian Cookbook. Sydney: Lansdowne, 1976.
In addition, extensive use has been made of the digitised newspapers resource available through Trove
(National Library of Australia).