Download Click www.ondix.com to visit our student-to

Click www.ondix.com to visit our student-to-student file sharing network.
Ancient systems of writing in the Middle East arose when
people needed a method for remembering important information. In
both Ancient Iraq and Ancient Egypt each of the stages of writing,
from pictograms to ideograms to phonetograms, evolved as a response
to the need to express more complex ideas. Satisfaction of this
need gave us the two most famous forms of ancient writing,
cuneiform from ancient Iraq, and hieroglyphics from ancient Egypt.
Both of these forms of writing evolved and their use spread to
other peoples even after the originators of the scripts had passed
on.
Some of the oldest writing found in the Middle East dates from
8000 to 3000 B.C. This corresponds to the approximate time period
that the people of the region went from living a nomadic life to
settlement in villages and trading among themselves. When trading
large or varying types of commodities you need a method for
recording. To meet this need developed a token system for the
recording of financial data. These tokens were of varying shapes
for various things, two to three centimetres in size, and used for
enumeration and keeping track of goods and labour.
These tokens eventually had to be stored so they wouldn't be
misplaced or lost. To secure them, they were placed in opaque clay
envelopes. To indicate what was inside the envelope markings were
made on it, eventually someone realized that all you had to do was
mark on the clay what was in the envelope and you discard the
tokens altogether. With this major development we get the first
writing on clay tablets.
In Ancient Mesopotamia the most readily available material for
writing on was clay. When writing on clay first arose, the scribe
would try to make an artistic representation of what he was
referring to. This is a logical first step in writing as if you
wanted to record that you had three sheep, you would draw a picture
of a sheep and then add to the picture some marking to indicate
that you had three of them. Thus the earliest stage in writing
arose, pictograms.
Pictograms, although not really writing in the modern sense of
the term, do represent a method of communicating an event or
message. They also 'led to true writing through a process of
selection and organization.' As people wanted to write more down
and in a faster method, the pictograms lost their artistic look and
took on a more 'stylised representation of an object by making a
few marks in the clay . . . .' The writing was eventually written
in 'horizontal lines rather than in squares or in vertical bands .
. . became smaller, more compact, more rigid, more 'abstract',
finally bearing no resemblance to the objects they represented . .
. .'
The next stage in the development of ancient writing was when
the scribes wished to write more complex ideas down. In time a sign
that had represented a tangible object, came to represent some word
or thing. For example, the symbol representing the sun eventually
represented over seventy different words. This caused some
confusion as the reader could not be certain what the writer was
using the symbol for.
A solution to this problem was the introduction of a method to
indicate what the symbol represented. These new symbols were called
determinative. For example, the Sumerians placed a symbol in front
of, or sometimes behind, the word sign to give the reader an
indication of how to interpret it. The sign for plow could have the
sign for wood in front of it, this meant that the symbol for plow
meant the tool, if there was a symbol of a man in front, the symbol
for plow would be interpreted as plowman.
The most advanced stage of development was the phonetogram. A
phonetogram is a symbol that represented the pronunciation of part
of a word. Phonetograms developed from symbols for words that
sounded like the syllables of other words. For example you could
have the symbol '4' and 'C' in modern writing go together to make
the symbol 4C, which would represent four seas, but if you added
the determinative ' to make it 4'C' it could be read as the word
'foresee'. Thus a transition from pictographic to phonetographic.
With this, you could adapt a script to write the sounds of any word
from any language.
In Ancient Mesopotamia these three stages in writing can be
found in cuneiform. Cuneiform (Latin for 'wedge') writing is made
on clay with the end of a wooden or reed stylus. The impression
made by the stylus left a mark in the clay that resembled a wedge,
hence the name cuneiform applied to the script. Originally the
script was written on small clay tablets and read from top to
bottom. When the scribes began to use larger blocks of clay, it
became necessary for them to shift the position of the tablet in
their left hand, thus rotating the script 90 degrees. (See Fig.
1 attached).
The use of cuneiform is seen in documents as far back as 3000
BC up to about the first century AD when astronomers still used the
script. Of the documents found, more that 75% of the 150,000
are of an economic nature. This includes legal documents, text
relating to sale and purchase, census and tax returns, and several
other types of documents relating to matters of trade and commerce.
The very number of documents found relating to economic activity
shows that the script developed to satisfy the need to record these
economic activities.
Cuneiform evolved from a pictographic form to idiographic and
finally to a phonetographic form. It is in the final form that the
script was adopted by other people in the region. When the
Akkadians conquered Sumer they adopted the cuneiform writing system
for their own language. First attempts at using the cuneiform
script for writing Akkadian started sometime during the third
millennium but wasn't used extensively till the reign of Sargon I,
then Akkadian was written till about 100AD.
With the adaption of cuneiform to write Akkadian, the number
of different types of symbols shifted from pictograms in Sumerian
to phonetograms. The main reason for this is that the Akkadian
language is structured differently than Sumerian. The current
number of Sumerian phonetograms was not enough to write the
Akkadian language, therefore they had to make more symbols to write
in cuneiform. Other symbols were adapted as they were, the
picotograms that represent an object in Sumerian would represent
the same object in Akkadian, the only difference would be the words
would be pronounced differently. For example the Sumerian symbol
for god, dingir, would be used to write the Akkadian word for god,
ilu.
In time other people of the region adopted the cuneiform
script as well. The Elamites, of south-west Iran, adopted it and
reduced the number of symbols to about 100. The Hittites and
Old Persians also adopted the script, with Old Persian the number
of symbol reduced even further to 41 signs. The Ugaritic people
of northern Syria also adopted the script, using 30 signs, which
basicly corresponds to the West Semitic linear alphabet. With
each of these languages the original Sumerian script was adopted in
such a way as to write the new language in the easiest phonetic
form possible, hence the reduction in the number of signs almost
down to the number of signs in an alphabet.
The use of cuneiform eventually died out around 100AD, with
its death ended the ability for people to read the script. In the
18th century some progress was made with travellers to Persepolis,
they copied short works in cuneiform that were thought to be from
the Persian kings Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes. The first breakthrough
in deciphering Old Persian was made by the German G.F. Grotefend.
Using an assumption that Old Persian consisted of only a limited
number of signs with single slanting wedges as word dividers, as
well as observational evidence indicating that the script read from
left to right, he recognized a series of repeating symbols. The
text seemed to be referring to one King as the son of another and
Gotefend theorized that it was Darius and his son Xerxes. Working
from these names he derived from looking at Greek, Hebrew, and
Avestan, he came up with a translation.
The most extensive cuneiform deciphering work done in the 19th
century was by Henry Rawlinson. Rawlinson, in 1835 an English
Military advisor in Persia with knowledge of Avestan and Sanskirt,
copied a trilingual text of King Darius from a mountainside in
Behistun in what is now western Iran. The trilingual text,
written in Old Persian, Babylonian and Elamite, described King
Darius's victories in the 6th century B.C., gave Rawlinson a
large corpus of material to work with. In 1847 he translated the
Old Persian and was working on the Elamite, and in 1851 he had
finished deciphering the meanings of about 200 Babylonian
signs. He also used a list of all the people of Darius's empire,
from the text, compared it with information from Greek histories
and used his knowledge of ancient languages to decipher a number of
the signs. With the decipherment of cuneiform, the various
economic and literary texts of Ancient Mesopotamia once again were
able to be read by scholars, giving us a clearer picture of a once
great civilization.
During the same time period that cuneiform developed, another
great writing system of the Ancient Middle East appeared, the
Egyptian Hieroglyphs. From the Greek ta hieroglyphica, meaning 'the
sacred carved (letters)' comes our word hieroglyphics.
Hieroglyphics are probably the most artistic scripts in the world,
consisting of actual drawings or carvings of things from the real
world and written continuously in either columns or in a horizontal
line. This script was read from right to left, or sometimes from
left to right, with upper signs being read before lower ones.
(See Fig. 2 attached).
Like cuneiform, originally the hieroglyphs were pictograms.
For example represented the sun, or a picture of a human face
represented a face. As with cuneiform this made the writing
system limited because it needed hundreds of symbols for all the
words, making expression of complex ideas difficult. The
hierogylphs went to a phonogram stage where the symbols were
uniconsonantal (one consonant), biconsonantal (two consonants) and
triconsonantal (3 consonants), greatly reducing the number of
signs required to write. In its most advanced form hieroglyphics
were composed of three types of signs, pictograms, phonetograms,
and determinatives to help the reading understand a symbols
meaning.
As the Greek name suggests, these hieroglyphics were mainly
used for religious purposes rather than for economic as in ancient
Iraq. The Egyptians believed th
Keywords:
ancient systems writing middle east arose when people needed method remembering
important information both ancient iraq ancient egypt each stages writing from
pictograms ideograms phonetograms evolved response need express more complex ideas
satisfaction this need gave most famous forms writing cuneiform from iraq hieroglyphics
from egypt both these forms evolved their spread other peoples even after originators
scripts passed some oldest found middle east dates this corresponds approximate time
period that people region went living nomadic life settlement villages trading among
themselves when trading large varying types commodities need method recording meet
this developed token system recording financial data these tokens were varying shapes
various things three centimetres size used enumeration keeping track goods labour these
tokens eventually stored they wouldn misplaced lost secure them they were placed
opaque clay envelopes indicate what inside envelope markings were made eventually
someone realized that mark clay what envelope discard tokens altogether with major
development first clay tablets mesopotamia most readily available material when first
arose scribe would make artistic representation what referring logical first step wanted
record that three sheep would draw picture sheep then picture some marking indicate
three them thus earliest stage arose pictograms pictograms although really modern sense
term represent method communicating event message they also true through process
selection organization people wanted write more down faster lost their artistic look took
more stylised representation object making marks eventually written horizontal lines
rather than squares vertical bands became smaller compact rigid abstract finally bearing
resemblance objects represented next stage development scribes wished write complex
ideas down time sign represented tangible object came represent some word thing
example symbol representing represented over seventy different words caused confusion
reader could certain writer using symbol solution problem introduction indicate symbol
symbols called determinative example sumerians placed front sometimes behind word
sign give reader indication interpret sign plow could have wood front meant plow meant
tool there front plow would interpreted plowman most advanced stage development
phonetogram phonetogram pronunciation part word phonetograms developed symbols
words sounded like syllables other words example could have modern together make
which represent four seas added determinative make read foresee thus transition
pictographic phonetographic with adapt script write sounds language mesopotamia stages
found cuneiform cuneiform latin wedge made with wooden reed stylus impression made
stylus left mark resembled wedge hence name applied script originally script written
small tablets read bottom scribes began larger blocks became necessary them shift
position tablet their left hand thus rotating degrees attached seen documents back about
century astronomers still used documents found economic nature includes legal
documents text relating sale purchase census returns several other types relating matters
trade commerce very number relating economic activity shows developed satisfy record
economic activities evolved pictographic form idiographic finally phonetographic form
final form adopted region akkadians conquered sumer adopted system language attempts
using akkadian started sometime during third millennium wasn used extensively till reign
sargon then akkadian written till about adaption akkadian number different types symbols
shifted sumerian phonetograms main reason language structured differently than
sumerian current number sumerian enough therefore adapted picotograms object same
only difference pronounced differently dingir time region adopted well elamites south
west iran reduced about hittites persians also persian reduced even further signs ugaritic
northern syria also using signs which basicly corresponds west semitic linear alphabet
each languages original such easiest phonetic possible hence reduction signs almost down
alphabet died around death ended ability read century progress travellers persepolis
copied short works thought persian kings cyrus darius xerxes breakthrough deciphering
persian german grotefend assumption consisted only limited single slanting wedges
dividers well observational evidence indicating left right recognized series repeating text
seemed referring king another gotefend theorized darius xerxes working names derived
looking greek hebrew avestan came translation extensive deciphering work done century
henry rawlinson rawlinson english military advisor persia knowledge avestan sanskirt
copied trilingual text king darius mountainside behistun western iran trilingual
babylonian elamite described king victories gave rawlinson large corpus material work
translated working elamite finished deciphering meanings babylonian list empire
compared information greek histories knowledge languages decipher decipherment
various literary texts mesopotamia once again able scholars giving clearer picture once
great civilization during same period another great system middle east appeared egyptian
hieroglyphs greek hieroglyphica meaning sacred carved letters comes hieroglyphics
hieroglyphics probably artistic scripts world consisting actual drawings carvings things
real world continuously either columns horizontal line right sometimes right upper being
before lower ones attached like originally hieroglyphs human face face limited because
needed hundreds making expression complex ideas difficult hierogylphs went phonogram
where uniconsonantal consonant biconsonantal consonants triconsonantal consonants
greatly reducing required advanced composed determinatives help reading understand
meaning name suggests mainly religious purposes rather than iraq egyptians believed
Keywords General:
Essay, essays, termpaper, term paper, termpapers, term papers, book reports, study,
college, thesis, dessertation, test answers, free research, book research, study help,
download essay, download term papers