Download Attractive marbled beef produced by Japanese Black cattle and Wagyu

1
Attractive marbled beef produced by Japanese Black cattle and
2
Wagyu: marbling and health
3
4
Takafumi GOTOH* and Nobuhiro KIMURA**
5
6
*Kuju Agricultural Research Center, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University
7
8780201, Japan
8
**Kimura Animal Professional Engineers Office, Saitama 336‐0922, Japan
9
10
11
1. Prolog: Marbled beef and health
12
In Japan, highly marbled beef is required for Japanese traditional cooking
13
methods. Depending on these demands, the use of heifers and steers instead of
14
bulls and the intensive feeding system, together with the genetic ability of the
15
Japanese Black cattle, results in greater fat deposition compared with European
16
breeds. Intramuscular fat improves beef quality at least in juiciness and flavor
17
(Hornsterin & Wasserman, 1987; Wheeler, Cundiff, &Koch,1994). Therefore,
18
marbling is an accepted indicator for meat quality and is assessed in abattoirs by
19
meat graders in various countries, e.g. USA and Japan. In meat like other kinds
20
of foods, there are 3 functions of food: 1) to provide nutrition, 2) to serve
21
deliciousness, and 3) to prevent disease. Beef has these three functions. In
22
Japan, our main dish is rice. On the other hand, beef is a sub-dish. Therefore,
23
we have developed beef quality rather than quantity, on the quite different way
24
from foreign countries that meat is a main-dish. It means that we needed
25
softness and deliciousness with intramuscular fat and red part of beef to be
26
suitable for food culture like Sukiyaki.
27
Nowadays bioscience is giving new concept for health. So far, in the modern
28
life, fat has not given good image to human health. Recently fat is supposed to
29
be better for health compared with carbohydrate, especially saccharide. Fat has
30
been an important energy resource in the history of humankind made his
31
appearance on the earth. In this review, I will describe attractive Wagyu beef and
32
the relationship between marbled beef and health.
33
34
35
2. Wagyu and marbled beef
36
In Japan, we have Wagyu which has high potential to accumulate
37
intramuscular fat and produce marbled beef. After Uruguay Round (1991), the
38
ration of intramuscular fat has strongly enhanced. Nowadays, marbled Wagyu
39
beef contains more than 40% intramuscular fat, sometimes more than 60%.
40
Actually, Wagyu cattle include four types of Japanese cattle, the Black, Brown,
41
Short Horn, and Polled breeds. All have played important roles locally and in the
42
history of mixed farming, as well as the synergies that exist between cattle and
43
crops, especially rice. Farmers gradually began replacing the role of cattle as
44
draft animals with farm machinery and industrial fertilizers approximately 50
45
years ago, and in recent years, Japanese Wagyu cattle have been formed more
46
specifically for beef production, The famous brand name Wagyu includes not
47
only Japanese Black cattle produced in Japan, but also animals or even
48
crossbred Japanese Black cattle produced in foreign countries such as Australia
49
or United States America. There are numerous studies investigating the meat
50
quality, quantity, and muscle physiology of crossbreed Wagyu (Japanese Black)
51
in foreign countries (May et al., 1993; Greenwood et al., 2006, 2009; Cafe et al.,
52
2006, 2009). In this review, Wagyu will be referred to as the Japanese Black.
53
High performance marbled beef production has caused Japanese Black cattle
54
to comprise the greatest share of Japan’s Wagyu cattle population (Gotoh et al.,
55
2009; Albrecht et al., 2011; Gotoh et al., 2014). Bulls that have been intra-bred to
56
improve the marbling score are an important target because artificial
57
insemination is used in nearly all cattle reproduction in Japan (Figure 1). The
58
intra-beef market for marbling has been markedly enhanced after the decision
59
by the Uruguay Round allowing Japan to import foreign beef beginning in 1991.
60
61
Figure 1. Japanese Black Bull (Itofuku, Oita prefecture) (Gotoh et al., 2014)
62
63
Beef greatly contributes to human health as a food containing significant
64
protein with a high biological value. The intensive concentrated feeding system
65
necessary to produce marbled beef results in a more than 30% increase in the
66
fat tissue content of carcasses (Zenbayashi and Inayama 1987). Recently
67
intramuscular fat content often indicates more than 50%. However, it is unclear
68
whether the desirable beef produced by the Japanese Black is based only on the
69
marbling character or also on other factors. Clarification of the skeletal muscle
70
characteristics in Japanese Black cattle using scientific methods is long awaited.
71
In 2013, a total 2.64 million head of cattle for beef production were fed in
72
Japan. Approximately 1.71 million head were Japanese Black cattle (Ministry of
73
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), 2013a), and approximately 873,400
74
are Holstein cattle used in beef production. The number of households raising
75
beef cattle is slowly decreasing in Japan. The number of farmers producing beef
76
was 613,000 in 2013, but 86.5% of these farmers feed less than 50 head. The
77
mean body and carcass weights at slaughter were 725 kg and 470 kg,
78
respectively, at 26–30 months of age. In recent years, the intramuscular fat
79
percentage of beef from Japanese Black cattle averaged greater than 30% (Horii
80
et al., 2009; Albrecht et al., 2011) (Figure 2). The output of beef cattle indicated
81
about 63.2 million USD (863 ton) in 2012 (MAFF, 2013b). In recent time, Japan
82
exports Beef to foreign countries (USA, Canada, Hong Kong, Macau, Mexico,
83
New Zealand, Vietnam, Philippines, EU; since 2014).
84
85
Figure 2. Meat produced by Japanese Black steers. A: marbled beef at 12
86
thoracic vertebrae level of longissimus thoracis muscle (BMS No. 7). B: Macro
87
appearance of marbled fat depots. C: azan staining of transverse section
88
(thickness: 10μm) in the longissiumus thoracis muscle of the best grade
89
Japanese Black marbled beef. Myofiber bundles (white arrow) look like
90
islands in a sea of adipose tissue (black arrow). (Gotoh et al., Animal Science
91
Journal, 74, 339-354. 2009) D: azan staining of adipocytes.
(Gotoh et al.,
92
2014)
93
94
95
3. Grading of marbled beef in Japan
96
Not only Japanese Black carcasses but also those of most Japanese breeds
97
are evaluated by accredited graders from the Japan Meat Grading Association in
98
accordance with the beef carcass grading standards. There are nearly 200
99
accredited graders in Japan. Established in 1988 (Japan Meat Grading
100
Association (JMGA), 1988), the present grading system assigns both a yield
101
grade (A, B, and C) and meat quality grade (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) (JMGA, 2014). All
102
beef carcasses in Japan are graded at the 6th to 7th rib section at least one hour
103
after ribbing. Four items are independently evaluated: beef marbling; meat color
104
and brightness; meat firmness and texture; and fat color, luster, and quality. The
105
meat quality grade of the carcass is then assigned according to the lowest grade
106
of these four items.
107
Especially regarding Beef Marbling, in 1988, the marbling levels were
108
assigned by the Beef Marbling Standard (BMS) using plastic model made from
109
silicone resin. This standard was calculated based on the circumference and
110
area percentage of marbling particles in the rib eye section (longissimus dorsi).
111
In October 2008, a new marbling standard utilizing carcass photographs
112
replaced the 1988 standard, and in March 2014, an even newer marbling
113
standard was implemented (Figure 3). Graders determine the BMS number (1 to
114
12) by comparing the actual carcass marbling and the marbling standard
115
photograph. During this process, any larger inclusions of fat at the periphery of
116
the rib eye are not considered marbling according to the Japanese grading
117
system.
118
119
120
121
122
Figure 3. Official picture standard of BMS (Beef Marbling Standard), BCS (Beef Color
123
Standard) and BFS (Beef Fat Standard) by Japan Meat Grading Association (JMGA, 2014)
124
125
126
4.Nutrients and health
127
High quality of Japanese Black beef consists of about 13% of crude protein,
128
40% of crude fat and 47% of moisture. I describe about each nutrient like the
129
followings:
130
1) Protein, amino acid of beef and related substances
131
Beef is an important food as a protein resource. it forms our body. Protein
132
especially
133
cerebrovascular disease. Positive protein intake enhances our immune
134
system. If it is short of protein, it has an attack of anemia. And finally we lose
makes
blood
vessels
flexible
and
prevents
us
from
135
our resistance against many kinds of disease and stress. Our 1/30 protein of
136
body constitution exchanges new one every day. Protein forming our body
137
consists of 20 kinds of amino acids. The amino-acid score of beef is 100. It
138
means that beef contains balanced amino acids.
139
In higher quality of Japanese Black beef, the balance of amino acid
140
composition of beef is very nice because of containing 9 kinds of essential
141
amino acids. Moreover, the ratio of absorption of beef protein to the body is
142
about 97%. It is quite nice. Amino acid basically has function of biological
143
regulation to prevent from disease.
144
Tryptophan is one of essential amino acids, from which serotonin is
145
produced. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter in brain to play role to maintain
146
tranquility. Beef contains rich tryptophan. Especially low concentration of
147
serotonin in brain is related to melancholia. Therefore tryptophan intake from
148
beef is very significant for your psychological health. Meanwhile tryptophan is
149
a material of Niacin synthesis. The insufficiency of niacin intake causes
150
headache, anorexia, constipation and diarrhea and son on.
151
Taurine, that beef abundantly contains, is one of amino acids, which play
152
role in body to enhance bile acid, make blood pressure lower and improve
153
liver function and so on. Beef contains rich taurine.
154
Leucine, which beef abundantly has, is one of essential amino acids.
155
Leucine is one of branched-chain amino acids, which is reported that it plays
156
important role to reduce muscle fatigue and improve athletic endurance. In
157
recent time, it was thought that leucine has function to suppress degradation
158
of muscle and promote synthesis of muscle. Leucine is an important to keep
159
muscle mass for us. For human health, to keep or to increase muscle mass is
160
very important because, by increasing muscle mass, basal metabolic rate
161
(BMR) is enhanced to prevent from obesity or against metabolic syndrome.
162
Carnitine which is contained in beef, is a bioactive substance to transport
163
fatty acid into mitochondria at the producing energy by burning fat in the body.
164
It is quite essential to burn body fat.
165
Myoglobin, which is related to red color of muscle, is a protein to bind iron
166
and oxygen. Myoglobin contains hemes and pigment which is responsible for
167
meat red color. In the intake of meat, iron combined with hems in myoglobin
168
of muscle can be smoothly absorbed in small intestine. We can say beef
169
contains rich and good quality iron. Therefore, beef intake is good for
170
preventing anemia.
171
172
173
2) Vitamins and minerals
Beef contains relatively richer vitamin B6, B12 folate and pantothenic acid.
174
Vitamin B6 plays important role to improve metabolism of amino acid. Beef
175
relatively contains potassium, magnesium, phosphate, iron and zinc. Beef is
176
very useful as a dietary source of these vitamins and minerals.
177
178
3) Intramuscular Fat forming marbled beef: Fatty Acids
179
Fat is normally stored as neutral fat in animal body, that is a storage lipid.
180
Neutral fat is synthesized from lipid, saccharide and protein. Neutral fat is
181
digested and absorbed in the digestive tract after intake of it. The excess
182
neutral fat is stored in subcutaneous fat cells and liver as storage lipids. At the
183
hungry, neutral fat is degraded into fatty acids and glycerol. And then fatty
184
acids are utilized in each organ as an energy resource and glycerol is also
185
used in liver as an energy resource. There are some types of fatty acids: 1)
186
mono-unsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), 2) polyunsaturated fatty acids
187
(PUFAs), and 3) saturated fatty acid. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid,
188
α-linolenic acid (n-3), γ-linolenic acid (n-6), Arachidonic acid and so on) has
189
many important compounds as essential fatty acids. We need to take food
190
containing PUFA. Meat like beef contains rich saturated fatty acids and
191
MUFAs (Oleic acid (n-9)). The highest ratio of fatty acids is Oleic acid as
192
MUFA in beef. Second is Stearic acid or palmitic acid as saturated fatty acids.
193
Beef also contain a little arachidonic acid (20:4(n-6)) and linoleic acid (18:3)
194
as polyunsaturated fatty acids.
195
As described previously, current beef produced by Japanese Black cattle
196
contains greater than 30% intramuscular fat. In addition to its valuable, highly
197
marbled meat, Japanese Black beef has a higher percentage of
198
monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) within the fat than do other breeds
199
(Yang et al. 1999a). A higher percentage of MUFA leads to a lower fat-melting
200
point, which contributes to the softness of bovine fat and favorable beef flavor,
201
and may decrease the circulating concentration of LDL cholesterol in
202
consumers (Melton et al., 1982; Rudel et al., 1995; Smith, 1994). Therefore,
203
the fatty acid composition of beef has recently become an important trait in
204
the beef industry, especially in Japanese Black cattle.
205
206
Zembayashi et al. (1995) investigated the effect of breed type, including
207
Japanese Black, and sex on the fatty acid composition of subcutaneous and
208
intramuscular lipids in finishing steers and heifers of pure Japanese Black
209
and Holstein, as well as crossbred Japanese Black, Holstein, Japanese
210
Brown, and Charolais. They reported that the Japanese Black is genetically
211
predisposed to producing carcass lipids containing higher concentrations of
212
monounsaturated fatty acids than Holstein, Japanese Brown, or Charolais
213
steers (P<0.001). Sturdivant et al. (1992) also concluded that beef from
214
purebred Wagyu cattle raised in Japan is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids.
215
Gotoh et al. (2011) compared intramuscular fatty acid composition of
216
longissimus muscle in 26-month-old Japanese Black steers and Holstein
217
steers reared and fattened using a standard fattening system with
218
considerable concentrate feed bases in a conventional Japanese fattening
219
system though normally a fattening period of Holstein cattle is short (until
220
20-22 months of age)(Table 1). In longissimus muscle, the results showed
221
higher percentage of unsaturated fatty acid in Japanese Black steers than in
222
Holstein steers (Gotoh et al., 2014). Moreover, Gotoh et al. (2011) also
223
compared the intramuscular fat content and intramuscular fatty acid
224
composition of 21 major skeletal muscles using same animals. Muscles from
225
the Japanese Black cattle contained a greater proportion of numerous fatty
226
acids, particularly C16:1, C18:1, C20:1, and monounsaturated fatty acids,
227
compared with fatty acids in the Holstein cattle (P < 0.001). In Japanese Black
228
cattle, the proportion of C18:0 and saturated FA was much lower (P < 0.001).
229
Stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) was firstly identified and reported as one
230
of the genes associated with beef fatty acid composition (Taniguchi et al.,
231
2004). This enzyme is responsible for converting saturated fatty acids into
232
MUFA in mammalian adipocytes. The composition of fatty acids stored in fat
233
depots reflects the earlier action of SCD on substrates such as stearic acid or
234
palmitic acid (Kim & Ntambi, 1999). Yang et al. (1999b) reported interesting
235
correlations between the SCD enzyme activity and fatty acid composition in
236
bovine adipose tissue. Although the adipogenic mechanism is extremely
237
complicated, several genes have been identified and confirmed as either
238
associated with or responsible for fatty acid composition in Japanese Black
239
cattle (Gotoh et al., 2014).
240
Sasaki et al. (2001) reported the relationship of crude fat content to lipid
241
peroxidation of beef during storage in Japanese Black beef. They prepared
242
longissimus muscle samples (fat content; 6.5-39.4%) from 27 Japanese
243
Black steers. They measured thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
244
(TBARS) and lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH). They concluded that 1) high-fat
245
beef had high preservative properties and 2) TBARS formation was
246
correlated with LOOH derived from phospholipid oxidation in the initial period
247
of storage, and the relationship was correlated directly with fat content in a
248
later period.
249
250
Table 1. Comparison of intramuscular fatty acid compositions in longissimus muscle
251
between Wagyu and Holstein steers fattened by identical conventional-fattening-system
252
253
254
255
✝
✝✝
Values are expressed as mean (%) ± S.E. SFA: saturated fatty acid. MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acid.
✝✝✝
PUFA: polyunsaturated
fatty acid. Student’s t-test. *IMF: intramuscular fat. (Data from Gotoh et al.
2011)
256
257
Conjugated linoleic acid(CLA): In the best grade of Japanese Black beef,
258
there are more than 40% intramuscular fat. Basically intramuscular fat of beef
259
contains rich conjugated linoleic acid as a functional ingredient. Especially,
260
the ratio of conjugated linoleic acid of thigh muscle indicates 2.9 mg/g. In
261
ruminant, CLA is produced in the process that Isomerase secreted by
262
Anaerobic bacteria in microorganisms in rumens of ruminants add hydrogen
263
to linoleic acid. CLA has good effects for human health. CLA is very popular in
264
dietary supplement for overweight or obese people. Namely, CLA is supposed
265
to has a useful benefit to reduce body fat, however the evidences are still
266
insufficient. It is also supposed anti-cancer benefit (Dhiman, Nam and Ure,
267
2005).
268
Oleic acid(C18:1(n-9)): Beef contains rich oleic acid. Oleic acid is a
269
mono-unsaturated fatty acid, which can keep the level of high density
270
lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and reduce the level of low density lipoprotein
271
(LDL) cholesterol in blood.
272
Stearic acid (C18:0) which is one of saturated fatty acids, is reported to
273
has function to increase HDL cholesterol and to decrease LDL one in recent
274
time.
275
Arachidonic acid (C20:4 (n-6)) affects early neurological development. In
276
infants, it was reported that supplementation of arachidonic acid at 18 months
277
of age significantly improved intelligence measured by the mental
278
development index. the effect of arachidonic acid is enhanced with
279
simultaneously taking DHA. In adults, the disturbed metabolism of
280
Arachidonic acid is closely related to neurological disorders such as
281
Alzheimer's disease and Bipolar disorder (Rapoport, 2008) Arachidonic acid
282
is very important materials to form cell membrane of brain nervous. Especially,
283
arachidonic acid is not found in common plants. Therefore, we have to take
284
through dietary of meat.
285
286
287
4) Cholesterol
288
Normally cholesterol and fat has been thought to be negative factors for
289
human health. However, now it is thought that both are essential nutrients for
290
our body. If their intake is insufficient, the resistance to disease would
291
become lower, and the advance of aging would be accelerated.
292
Cholesterol is an essential structural component of all animal cell
293
membranes. Cholesterol is also an important structural lipid to make cell
294
membranes keep both membrane structural integrity and fluidity. Meanwhile
295
cholesterol is a material to synthesize steroid hormone, sex hormone, bile
296
acid and vitamin D and play important roles to maintain life.
297
298
299
4. Palatability
300
Japanese Black beef has own specific aroma. We call it “Wagyu Beef
301
Aroma”. Wagyu Beef Aroma comes from Wagyu beef cooked at 80 ℃
302
(Matsuishi,
303
relationship between intramuscular fat content and Umami (good taste)
304
ingredients (inosinic acid and glutamine acid), Japanese Black beef
305
containing 30-35% intramuscular fat content indicated the highest value
306
summed up inosinic acid and glutamine acid (Figure 4, JMSIC, 2010). I think,
307
from the point of view of production cost, Japanese Black beef containing
308
30% intramuscular fat would be quite reasonable about palatability and
309
cost-performance.
Fujimori and Okitani, 2001).
Meanwhile,
regarding the
310
311
312
5. How could we keep health by eating good marbled-beef?
313
Japanese Black beef contains not only protein but also so much
314
intramuscular fat. Conventionally fat intake or high calorie diet have been
315
supposed to be avoided for human health or overweight or obesity. As I
316
mentioned previously, beef includes good nutrients for forming our body,
317
keeping our health or enhancing resistance to disease. Intramuscular fat of
318
Japanese Black beef contains much MUFAs that prevent arteriosclerosis.
319
Recently it was reported that MUFAs normalize or improve lipid metabolism
320
and keep the balance in cardiac (heart) muscle (Lahey et al., 2014).
321
322
323
Figure 4. the relationship between intramuscular fat content and Umami (inosinic acid and
324
glutamine acid). Sample: beef of Japanese Black cattle, n=38. (Data of Dr. Fumiko Iida)
325
326
327
In the recent medicine as functional medicine, fat intake doesn’t have so
328
much a negative effect as a positive effect for human health (Saito, 2016). We
329
have to positively take fat containing good quality fatty acids to become healthy.
330
Of course, the balance of composition of fatty acids that we take is very
331
important. What we have to consider to reduce is to take (eat) food containing
332
much saccharide rather than fat. Especially, the excessive intake of saccharide
333
is not good for health and gives negative effects to the body. For examples,
334
unfortunately, rice, bread, noodle, cake, and root vegetables contain much
335
saccharide though they are very delicious especially Asian people. Why is
336
saccharide bad? Because excessive saccharide intake heightens the level of
337
blood glucose. On the other hand, if you eat excessive food containing much fat
338
and protein, fat and protein cannot heighten it. After becoming a higher level of
339
glucose in blood, then insulin secreted by pancreas helps glucose intake of cells,
340
and cells can generate energy from glucose. If glucose in cell is excessive, this
341
glucose goes to liver and is accumulated in the liver. However, mass of storage
342
is limited in the liver. Moreover, the excessive glucose in the liver goes outside
343
and to fat cells. it is accumulated as a neutral fat in fat cells by insulin. In this way,
344
visceral and subcutaneous fat are accumulated in the body. People finally
345
become obese. In modern society, it is thought that excessive saccharide intake
346
is one of the reasons of obesity. Such fat accumulation leads many kinds of
347
diseases like high blood presser(Hypertention), diabetes and arteriosclerosis
348
and so on. Fat cells accumulated in the human body lead inflammation in the
349
body and finally our body would not be able to control the inflammation.
350
Additionally, high level of blood glucose after meal give severe damages to
351
blood vessel (vascular endothelium) and if wound is formed on that endothelium,
352
macrophage containing lipid and calcium is accumulated in the wound. Finally, it
353
becomes fatty plaques and form thrombosis. To become healthy, it is better to
354
always keep the stable and relatively low level of insulin secretion.
355
356
On the other hand, maybe you worry about energy if you restrict to eat food
357
containing much saccharide. How can we live and work? How about energy?
358
Fortunately, our body has good functions from ancient times. We basically have
359
three ways of energy generation: 1) Glycolysis, 2) Gluconeogenesis, and 3)
360
Ketone bodies cycle (Ketogenesis). Basically mankind had eaten food
361
containing mainly fat and protein before mankind started agriculture (around
362
10,000 years ago). Mankind has started to eat carbohydrate after starting
363
agriculture, or crop production. In modern societies, we are often eating
364
excessive carbohydrate, especially much saccharide compared to our activity,
365
especially physical activity or physical labor or muscle use under the condition of
366
our modern or convenient life sytle.
367
1) The first way to generate energy is Glycolysis. Glycolysis is to produce
368
energy using glucose produced from intake of saccharide. Glycolysis is one
369
of the metabolic pathways. This pathway is the primitive metabolic pathway
370
almost organism has converts glucose into pyruvate. The free energy
371
released in this process is utilized to form the high-energy compounds ATP
372
and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). In this pathway,
373
saccharide is used as a material. The excessive saccharide is accumulated
374
as neutral fat in fat cells or as glycogen in liver.
375
2) The second way is Gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis is to produce energy
376
by producing glucose using amino acid proteolysis from muscle. In other
377
words, Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway to generate glucose from
378
certain non-carbohydrate carbon substrates. By breakdown of proteins,
379
these substrates include glucogenic amino acids from breakdown of lipids,
380
they include glycerol. From other steps in metabolism they include pyruvate
381
and lactate. Gluconeogenesis is one of several main mechanisms to
382
maintain blood glucose levels, avoiding low levels of it (hypoglycemia), that
383
humans and many other animals have. If you use this system, you lose your
384
muscle. therefore you need to eat more protein like meat.
385
3) The third way is Ketone bodies cycle (Ketogenesis). Ketogenesis is to
386
generate energy by producing ketone bodies using medium-chain fatty acids
387
from neutral fat. Ketone bodies become energy. Ketone bodies are three
388
water-soluble molecules that are produced by the liver from fatty acids during
389
periods of fasting, carbohydrate restrictive diets, starvation, prolonged
390
intense exercise. These ketone bodies are converted into acetyl-CoA which
391
then enters the citric acid cycle and is oxidized in the mitochondria for energy.
392
They are therefore always released into the blood by the liver if the liver
393
glycogen stores have been depleted. In the brain, ketone bodies are also
394
used to make acetyl-CoA into long-chain fatty acids. The long-chain fatty
395
acids are not able to obtain from the blood because they are not able to pass
396
through the blood–brain barrier. In recent time, it is reported that Ketone
397
bodies play important roles of turning on the switch of longivity gene
398
expression (sirtuin 3, Shimazu et al., 2010) , antioxidant (3-Hydroxybutyric
399
acid) and keep stable appetite.
400
401
Figure 5. Three ways for generating energy from saccharide you eat,
402
muscle and neutral fat accumulated in fat cell in the human body.
403
(modified the figure that Dr. Takuji Shirasawa)
404
405
What I want to say is that we should use the second and the third ways to
406
generate energy. In Japan, some medicine doctors are recommending it
407
(Saito, 2016). If you take these two ways, you have to take protein and fat
408
rather than saccharide for getting energy. Therefore, I recommend to reduce
409
carbohydrate, especially saccharide and to increase to eat protein and fat
410
containing good quality fatty acids. It means that we can eat marbled beef to
411
generate energy and become healthy. I don’t say to stop eating saccharide,
412
however I want to say “please adjust to take saccharide according to your
413
physical activity”. In other words, once again if we can reduce to take
414
saccharide, we can eat marbled beef! It is no problem.
415
416
6. Epilog
417
I am not a medical doctor. However, food or how to eat is closely related to
418
human health and medicine. We, scientists studying beef production, should
419
know about food and how to eat based on mechanisms of our body. Protein
420
and fat
421
nutrient-source for our health. We would like to further improve the quality of
422
Japanese Black beef including reasonable production system for farmers.
that Japanese Black
cattle produce
are very important
423
424
References
425
Albrecht, E., T. Gotoh, F. Ebara, Xu JX, T. Viergutz, G. Nuernberg, S. Maak, J.
426
Wegner. 2011. Cellular conditions for intramuscular fat deposition in
427
Japanese Black and Holstein steers. Meat Science 89: 13-20.
428
Cafe, L.M., D.W. Hennessy, H. Hearnshaw, S.G. Morris, P.L.Greenwood. 2009.
429
Consequence of prenatal and preweaning growth for feedlot growth, intake
430
and efficiency of Piedmontese and Wagyu-sired cattle. Animal Production
431
Science 49: 461-467.
432
Café, L.M., D.W. Hennessy, H. Hearnshaw, S.G. Morris, P.L.Greenwood.2006.
433
Influences of nutrition during pregnancy and lactation on birthweights and
434
growth to weaning of calves sired by Piedmontese or Wagyu bulls. Australian
435
Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46, 245-255.
436
Dhiman, T.R., S.H.Nam, and A.L.Ure. 2005. Factors affecting conjugated linoleic
437
acid content in milk and meat. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
438
45: 463-482.
439
Gotoh, T., S. Olavanh, M. Shiota, B. Shirouchi, M. Satoh, E. Albrecht, S. Maak, J.
440
Wegner, Y. Nakamura, K. Etoh, Y. Shiotsuka, K. Hayashi, F. Ebara, T. Etoh, H.
441
Ida. 2011. Relationship between myofiber type and fatty acid composition in
442
skeletal muscles of Wagyu (Japanese Black) and Holstein cattle. The
443
proceeding of 57th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology
444
(Abstr.).
445
Gotoh, T., E. Albrecht, F. Teuscher, K. Kawabata, K. Sakashita, H. Iwamoto, J.
446
Wegner. 2009. Differences in muscle and fat accretion in Japanese Black
447
and European cattle Meat Science 82, 300-308.
448
449
Gotoh, T., H. Takahashi, T. Nishimura, K. Kuchida, H. Mannen. 2014. Meat
Produced by Japanese Black Cattle and Wagyu. Animal Frontiers. 4: 46-54.
450
Greenwood, P.L., L.M. Cafe, H. Hearnshaw, D.W. Hennessy, J.M. Thopson, S.G.
451
Morris.2006. Long-term consequences of birth weight and growth to
452
weaning for carcasss, yield and beef quality characteristics of Piedmontese-
453
and Wagyu-sired cattle. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46,
454
257-269.
455
Greenwood, P.L., L.M. Cafe, H. Hearnshaw, D.W. Hennessy, S.G. Morris. 2009.
456
Consequence of prenatal and preweaning growth for yield of primal cuts
457
from 30 months of-old Piedmontese- and Wagyu-sired cattle. Animal
458
Production Science 468-478.
459
460
Gyuniku no Miryoku (in Japanese). 2010. M. Fujimaki. Japan Meat Information
Service Center (JMISC) Public Interest Incorporated Association., Tokyo.
461
Horii, H, Y. Sakurai, Y. Kanbe, K. Kasai, K. Ono, T. Asada, T. Mori, M. Kobayashi,
462
A. Iguchi, M. Yamada, M. Hayashi, K. Hodate. 2009. Relationship between
463
Japanese Beef Marbling Standard numbers and intramuscular lipid in M.
464
longissimus thoracis of Japanese Black steers from 1996 to 2004. Nihon
465
Chikusan Gakkaiho 80 (1): 55－61.
466
Hornstein, I., & Wasserman, A.1987. Sensory characteristics of meat. Part
467
2-Chemistry of meat flavor. In J.F. Price &B.S.Schweigert (Eds.), The
468
science of meat and meat products ( 3rd et., pp. 329-347). Westport, CT:
469
Food and Nutrition Press.
470
Japan Meat Grading Association (JMGA). 1988. Meat Grading Standard.
471
Japan Meat Grading Association(JMGA). 2014. Beef Carcass Trading
472
Standards. pp1-16
473
Kim, Y.C., J.M. Ntambi. 1999. Regulation of stearoyl-CoA desaturase genes:
474
Role in cellular metabolism and preadipocyte differentiation. Biochemical and
475
Biophysical Research Communications 266: 1-4.
476
Lahey, R., X. Wang, A.N. Carley, E.D. Lewandowski. 2014. Dietary fat supply to
477
failing hearts determineds dynamic lipid signaling for nuclear receptor
478
activation and oxidation of stored triglyceride. Circulation 130:1790-1799.
479
480
481
MAFF. 2012. Statistics of Agriculture, forestry and fisheries . Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestory and Fisheries (in Japanese )
MAFF. 2013b. Strategy of export for Beef. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestory and
482
Fisheries(in Japanese )
483
MAFF. 2013a. Statistics. V. Livestock and Poultry, number of farm households
484
feeding livestock and number of livestock fed etc. Ministry of Agriculture,
485
Forestory and Fisheries
486
Matsuishi, M., M. Fujimori and A. Okitani. 2001. Wagyu beef aroma in Wagyu
487
(Japanese Black Cattle) beef preferred by the Japanese over imported
488
beef. Animal Science Journal 72:498-504.
489
May, S.G., C.A. Sturdivant, S.K. Lunt, R.K. Miller, S.B. Smith. 1993. Comparison
490
of sensory characteristiics and fatty acid composition between Wagyu and
491
crossbred and Angus steers. Meat Science 35, 289-298.
492
Melton, L., M. Amiri, W. Davis, R. Backus. 1982. Flavor and chemical
493
characteristics of ground beef from grass-, forage-grain- and grain-finished
494
steers. Journal of Animal Science 55: 77-87.
495
Rudel, L., S. Park, K. Sawyer. 1995. Compared with dietary monounsaturated
496
and saturated fat, polyunsaturated fat protects African green monkeys from
497
coronary artery athero-sclerosis. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular
498
Biology 15: 2101-2110.
499
500
Rapoport, S.I. 2008. Arachidonic acid and the brain. The Journal of Nutrition 138
(12): 2515–2520.
501
Saito, R. Ketogenic diet. Kodansha Ltd. Tokyo, 2016.
502
Sasaki, K., M. Mitsumoto, K. Kawabata. 2001. Relationship between lipid
503
peroxidation and fat content in Japanese Black beef Longissimus muscle
504
during storage. Meat Science 59: 407-410.
505
Shimaz, T., M.D. Hirschey, L. Hua, K.E. Dittenhafer-Reed, B. Schwer, D.B.
506
Lombard, Y. Li, J. Bunkenborg, F.W. Alt, J.M. Denu, M.P. Jacobson,
507
E.Verdin.
508
3-Hydroxy-3-Methylglutaryl CoA Synthase 2 and regulates ketone body
2010.
Sirt3
deacetylates
mitochondrial
509
510
511
production. Cell Metabolism, 12: 654-661.
Smith, S. 1994. The animal fatty acid synthase: one gene, one polypeptide,
seven enzymes. The FASEB Journal 8: 1248-1259.
512
Sturdivant, C.A., D.K. Lunt, G.C. Smith, S.B. Smith. 1992. Fatty acid composition
513
of subcutaneous and intramuscular adipose tissues and M. longissimus
514
dorsi of Wagyu cattle. Meat Science 32:449-458.
515
Taniguchi, M, T. Utsugi, K. Oyama, H. Mannen, M. Kobayashi, Y. Tanabe, A.
516
Ogino, S. Tsuji. 2004. Genotype of stearoyl-CoA desaturase is associated
517
with fatty acid composition in Japanese Black cattle. Mammalian Genome
518
15: 142-148.
519
Wheeler, T.L., Cundiff, L.V., & Koch, M. 1994. Effect of marbling degree on beef
520
palatability in Bos Taurus and Bos indicus cattle. Journal of Animal Science
521
72:3145-3151.
522
Yang, A., T.W. Larsen, H. Powell, K. Tume. 1999a. A comparison of fat
523
composition of Japanese and long-termgrain-fed Australian steers. Meat
524
Science 51: 1-9.
525
526
Yang A, T.W. Larsen, S.B. Smith, R.K. Tume. 1999b. Δ9 desaturase activity in
bovine subcutaneous fatty acid composition. Lipids 34: 971-978.
527
Zembayashi, M. and M. Inayama. 1987. Fat partition and its distritbution in
528
Japanese Black, Japanese Shorthorn and Holstein steer carcass. Japanese
529
Journal of Zootechnical Science 58:381-387.
530
Zembayashi, M., K. Nishimura, D.K. Lunt, S. B. Smith. 1995. Effect of breed type
531
and sex on the fatty acid composition of subcutaneous and intramuscular
532
lipids of finishing steers and heifers. Journal of Animal Science 73:
533
3325-3332.
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
Table 1. Comparison of intramuscular fatty acid compositions in longissimus
541
muscle between Wagyu and Holstein steers fattened by identical
542
conventional-fattening-system
543
544
Figure 1. Japanese Black Bull (Itofuku, Oita prefecture) (Gotoh et al., 2014)
545
546
Figure 2. Meat produced by Japanese Black steers. A: marbled beef at 12
547
thoracic vertebrae level of longissimus thoracis muscle (BMS No. 7). B: Macro
548
appearance of marbled fat depots. C: azan staining of transverse section
549
(thickness: 10μm) in the longissiumus thoracis muscle of the best grade
550
Japanese Black marbled beef. Myofiber bundles (white arrow) look like islands
551
in a sea of adipose tissue (black arrow). (Gotoh et al., Animal Science Journal,
552
74, 339-354. 2009) D: azan staining of adipocytes.
(Gotoh et al., 2014)
553
554
Figure 3. Official picture standard of BMS (Beef Marbling Standard), BCS (Beef
555
Color Standard) and BFS (Beef Fat Standard) by Japan Meat Grading
556
Association (JMGA, 2014).
557
558
Figure 4. the relationship between intramuscular fat content and Umami (inosinic
559
acid and glutamine acid). Sample: beef of Japanese Black cattle, n=38. (Data of
560
Dr. Fumiko Iida)
561
562
Figure 5. Three ways for generating energy from saccharide you eat, muscle
563
and neutral fat accumulated in fat cell in the human body.