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Psych 202 Exam 1 Chapter 2: Research Methods What are “hit or miss” observations? Why can they be problematic? o Hit or miss observations are going to random places and asking surveying random people. Making conclusions based on only whatever is around us. Some problems that might occur is the region or age demographic you are asking. What are the 3 main categories of research methods? o Descriptive, Correlational and Experimental What are some examples of descriptive methods? o Naturalistic Observations (Ex. observing cell phone use of pedestrians), case studies (ex. people with certain types of brain damage), Surveys (ex. survey about attitudes towards refugee programs) What are some problems with descriptive studies? o Observer bias o Hawthorne effect: Productivity goes up b/c participants know they’re being watched What is the correlational method? How are scatterplots used to determine direction and degree of relationship within correlations? o Correlational methods determines whether relationship exists btwn 2 dependent variables. Scatterplots depict negative/positive correlations and strength of relationship. What are some problems with interpretation of correlations? o Correlation does NOT equal causation o Directionality of relationship o Third variable problem What is the different between a true independent variable and an attribute variable? How can you use random assignment to determine the difference between these two types of variables? o True variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable , the presumed effect. Condition that cause changes in behavior. Attributable variable is when an independent variable is not manipulated. Inherent characteristics of participants (ex. age, gender, intelligence, etc.) Random Assignment is when each participant has an equal chance of getting into any condition of experiment. If you can randomly assign participants to you IV then it’s a true IV; if you can’t then it’s attributable. Can we claim causation with studies involving attributable variables? Why or why not? o Can’t claim causation with attributable variables because you can’t manipulate them. Experiments with attributable variables is called quasi-experiments. What are operational definitions? What are 3 main types of operational definitions? o Operational definitions are detailed definitions for DVs and IVs. 3 mains types are physiological, behavior and self-report. What are some operational definitions? What are some examples of operational definitions when studying infants or animals? This study source was downloaded by 100000840507698 from CourseHero.com on 02-16-2022 17:54:18 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/47686851/Psych-202-Exam-1docx/ o An example of an operational definition would be a researcher measuring happiness and depression in college students decides to use a ten-question happiness scale to measure positive outlook in her subjects. In other words, her operational definition of happiness in this case is a given subject’s score on the test. An example In children is moral development and observing the behaviors a child might have towards a puppet. In animals, an example would be knowing what hand the treat will be in. What is reliability? Validity? How are they different? o Reliability is the extent to which a test yields consistent results. Validity is the extent to which a test measure or predicts what it’s supposed to do. Validity measures how accurate something is and reliability measure how consistent it is. Example: Someone steps on a scale and weighs 150lbs over and over (reliability) however they are actually 120lbs (not valid) What is replication and why is it important? o Replication is a tentative nature of scientific conclusions. Replication is repeating an experiment. It is important because studies that have been replicated multiple times become more trustworthy. What is meta-analysis? o Analyzes results of studies on same topic, variables. It’s the larger view of replication and looks at the overall patterns. (Ex. math ability and gender there was a small difference or none at all between the two.) Pearson (2010) What is the main research question of the study? o To see the attitudes towards immigrants What is IV and DV? o IV: The term to describe a Mexican immigrant (random assignment) o DV: stereotypes, threats, taxation, emotional coldness ,etc. Results? o Received negative stereotypes Classified as true experiment? o Yes because the IV was randomly assigned which means the participants received random terms. Text Chapter 4: Brain and Behavior What are some methods for studying brain structure and function? o Brain damage effects (ex. strokes, lesions, etc.) o Observing brain in action (ex. PET, fMRI, etc.) What are the major structure of the brain and what are the main functions of each? o Spinal Cord: Apart of the CNS and can function independently of brain o Brainstem: Basics of survival Medulla: vital involuntary function (breathing, etc.) This study source was downloaded by 100000840507698 from CourseHero.com on 02-16-2022 17:54:18 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/47686851/Psych-202-Exam-1docx/ Pons: connects cerebellum to rest of brain Reticular formation: sleep, arousal, attention Midbrain: sensory reflexes, movement, pain o Cerebellum: movement, balance, motor coordination o Subcortical Structures: basic drives and emotions Thalamus: sensory relay station: consciousness Basal Ganglia: voluntary movement Amygdala: fear, disgust, aggression Hippocampus: memory formation Hypothalamus: regulates temp, hunger, activity of ANS Cingulate cortex: decision making, emotion, visual processing Nucleus accumbens: reward, pleasure, social inclusion o Cerebral cortex: complex mental activity Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital Motor cortex Somatosensory cortex: touch Broca’s area: language production/speaking Wernicke’s: language reception/understanding How does split brain research allow us to understand the functions of the left and right hemispheres? o Sever of the corpus collosum breaks communication between the left and right hemispheres. This allows us to see how the two hemispheres work independently of each other. What types of errors do split brain patients make during cognitive tests? How do these errors help us understand right vs left hemispheric function? o You might see something from your left eye and your right hemisphere will take that information but your left side won’t. The left side will do whatever the right eyes sees. The right side is face recognition, spatial/perceptual tasks. The left side mostly language. What are some examples of brain plasticity? o Recovery from illness, injury (ex. retraining after stroke, motor training for MS, etc.), blindness and deafness, phantom limb (mirror box therapy) Part 2: General Organization of Nervous System – The Neuron What are the main components and subcomponents of the CNS and PNS? o CNS: Brain and spinal cord o PNS: Somatic and autonomic nervous system Autonomic divides into: Sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric What are the basic structures of the neuron? o Axon: transmit info Synapse o Dendrite: collects info o Cell body: integrates info This study source was downloaded by 100000840507698 from CourseHero.com on 02-16-2022 17:54:18 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/47686851/Psych-202-Exam-1docx/ o Neuron communicates through electric impulses and chemical signals What is the difference between sensory, motor and interneurons? o Sensory (afferent) : incoming info to CNS o Motor (efferent): outgoing info from CNS to muscles o Interneurons: connects sensory and motor neurons Works within CNS transmission of info and performs integration and organization function What are glial cells? o Supports function o Formation of blood brain barrier o Supplies nutrients to neurons and support structure o Formation of myelin sheath What is myelin and how does it affect neuronal communication? o Myelin is insulation for axon and it increase neural transmission speed so action potentials can jump across How does neural communication work? o Action potential is an electrical impulse that travels down the axon and triggers the release of neurotransmitters. Occurs at the Nodes of Ranvier. The electrical signaling can be hyperpolarization or depolarization. Hyperpolarization: increase in membrane potential. Inside of neuron becomes more negative. Depolarization: inside of cell becomes less negative and increases opportunity for action potential How does neuronal communication function at the synapse? o Action potential triggers release of neurotransmitters and bind to postsynaptic receptors and make it more or less likely to fire an action potential Part III: Psychoactive Drugs; Dopamine and Addiction What are major categories of neurotransmitters? o Acetylcholine: Motor control, mental motivation o Monoamines: affect arousal and motivation o Amino Acids: excitatory and inhibitory transmission o Peptides: modulate neurotransmission What are the main function of specific neurotransmitters? o Acetylcholine Learning and memory, causes muscle contraction, regulates attention, memory and sleep Shortage: Low levels in Alzheimer’s patients drops as you get older That’s why Alzheimer’s patients have bad memory problems Excess: muscle spasms o Monoamines Epinephrine and norepinephrine NE: increases physiological arousal This study source was downloaded by 100000840507698 from CourseHero.com on 02-16-2022 17:54:18 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/47686851/Psych-202-Exam-1docx/ Shortage: depression Excess: mania Serotonin Physiological arousal, sleep/wakefulness, aggression (low serotonin) A lot of serotonin in schizophrenic patients Dopamine Movement, motivation, pleasure and reward shortage depression o Parkinson’s Disease: tracts of DA degenerate in basal ganglia which is why they have difficulty with movement excess: schizophrenia o Cholecystokinin Digestion, satiety Excess: anxiety o Endorphins Natural pain relivers, calm and pleasure Acts within pain pathways and emotion center for brain Shortage: chronic pain Binds to same sites as morphine and heroine o Substance P Pain perception, vasodilation inflammation, mood disorders, anxiety and stress o GABA Inhibits sending neurons Drugs mimic GABA used to treat anxiety, insomnia Shortage: epilepsy, Huntington’s disease and anxiety Excess: unmotivated o Glutamate Excitatory Helps learning and memory: increased speed of synaptic cleft What is the difference between an agonist and antagonist? o Agonist: increase effect of neurotransmitter o Antagonist: decreases/blocks effects of neurotransmitter What are the actions of drugs we learned in lecture? Do they work as agonists or antagonists? o Naloxone: blocks heroine from binding to receptors saves person from overdose (antagonists) o Tricyclic Antidepressants: inhibits reuptake of NE and treats depression, ADHD. Works as agonists o SSRIs: treats depression, OCD, eating disorders, etc. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Agonists This study source was downloaded by 100000840507698 from CourseHero.com on 02-16-2022 17:54:18 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/47686851/Psych-202-Exam-1docx/ o Antipsychotic: blocks DA and serotonin. Treatment for bipolar, schizophrenia Antagonists o Alcohol, sedatives (agonists): mimics effects of GABA, glutamate inhibitor o Amphetamines, cocaine (agonists): increases DA and NE, blocks reuptake and increases release, activates sympathetic system o Nicotine (agonists): acts same site as Ach, receptors activated by Ach and nicotine, brain decreases production of Ach, so more nicotine is require highly addictive o Benzos (agonists): increases response to GABA o Opioids (agonists): activate receptors that respond to endorphins where people get the “high”, increases DA by binding with opiate receptors highly addictive due to dual activation of DA and opiate receptors o Hallucinogens: LSD has similar structure to serotonin o Marijuana: THC produces relaxed state, mood, distortions, memory impairment due to concentration of cannabinoid receptors in hippocampus What does the Sapolsky video tell us about how uncertainty affects DA release? o It is about the anticipation, the pursuit that increases DA levels. As reinforcement becomes unpredictable DA levels go up What the brain learns when DA is released? o Brain learns to repeat situation in order to get the high level of DA How DA release is different for natural experiences vs drug use? o DA levels drop in natural experiences but remain the same when taking drugs The factors that help predict who becomes addicted? o Genetic factors, age, etc. How chronic drug abuse affect DA D2 receptors? o D2 receptors are destroyed when someone is addicted. Has the same effect with obesity. D2 receptors regulate self-control. Text: Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception What are the main biological components of visual sensation and transduction? o Sensation: detection of stimuli o Transduction: Translation of sensory info How do Trichromatic Theory and Opponent Process Theory Differ? o Trichromatic: 3 cones that can detect blue, green and red in different amounts firing each type o Opponent Theory: competing channels for color tire some, other compensate What is top down processing and how does it differ from bottom up? o Top down: using ideas, models, etc. interpret info o Bottom up: taking info and assembling and integrating it What is the Gestalt effect? o Brain’s organizing tendencies allow to perceive things as organized whole (bottom up) This study source was downloaded by 100000840507698 from CourseHero.com on 02-16-2022 17:54:19 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/47686851/Psych-202-Exam-1docx/ What are some monocular cues for depth perception? Binocular cues? o Monocular: Linear Perspective, occlusion, texture gradient, etc. o Binocular: Stereopsis (binocular disparity) What do errors from visual illusion tell us about visual processing? o The brain attempts to piece together, categorize and make sense of what we’re seeing What are the main biological components of auditory processing? o Pinna: helps localize sounds as being above or below the head. Channeled through auditory canal. o Cochlea: structure in inner ear that contains auditory receptors Organ of Corti: located in basilar membrane and contain auditory receptors What is frisson? o Sudden strong feeling of excitement, fear; a thrill What cues are used for sound localization? o Pinna helps localize sounds but main method is comparing arrival time of sound at each ear. o Judge differences in intensity of sounds reaching each ear. What do errors from auditory illusion tell us about auditory processing? What are the main components of olfactory sensation and transduction? o Receptors o No direct connections btwn olfactory receptors and thalamus o Olfactory receptors olfactory bulbs olfactory cortex What is biological explanation for why olfactory stimuli often have strong emotional connections? o Connections to amygdala which has strong emotional connections to odor Text: Chapter 6: Consciousness What are 3 different definitions of consciousness? o Variation in alertness o Awareness of ongoing sensations o Self-awareness What is mirror recognition and what does it tell us about consciousness? o Recognizing one’s self in the mirror is believed to be a major development milestone in achieving self-awareness What are the EEG patterns of wakefulness? o Alpha: awake but relaxed o Beta: active data processing o Gamma: processing sensory network What is the DMN? What is its function? o Default mode network maintains high level of unconscious, background activity as it helps prepare the brain for conscious thought This study source was downloaded by 100000840507698 from CourseHero.com on 02-16-2022 17:54:19 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/47686851/Psych-202-Exam-1docx/ Text: What do the 3 examples of attention research tell us about how well we can pay attention to many details at the same time? o We are not very good at being able to multitask. If we are told to focus on one thing then we won’t notice everything else around it. What are the EEG patterns of sleep? How does REM differ from non-REM? o REM sleep: waveforms resembling waking by rapid motion of eyes, muscular paralysis, activating of sympathetic system and paradoxical sleep. o Non REM: characterized by theta and delta wave activity, deep physical relaxation Stage 1 – Theta Stage 2 – k complexes sleep episodes Stage 3+4 – delta waves Why is REM sleep important? o Large proportion of REM sleep across lifespan o Memory deterioration with sleep deprivation (REM rebound) o Restoration and integration What are benefits of hypnosis? Mindfulness meditation? o Hypnosis: altered state of consciousness characterized by relaxation and increased suggestibility. Feeling that one’s actions are occurring involuntarily. o Meditation: voluntary alteration of consciousness characterized by positive emotion and absence of thought. Physiological and cognitive benefits What are circadian rhythms? How does jet lag affect rhythms? o Circadian rhythms: daily biological rhythm. Provides approx. schedule for various physical processes. o Jet lag produces fatigue, irritability and sleepiness. What are some examples of sleep disorders? o Sleep terrors o Insomnia o Narcolepsy o Sleep apnea o SIDS What are some types of brain damages that affect consciousness? o Coma o Vegetative State: Wakefulness without consciousness o Brain death o Near death experiences Why does drug tolerance occur? o When a person must take a larger quantity of a drug to produce the desired effects. This study source was downloaded by 100000840507698 from CourseHero.com on 02-16-2022 17:54:19 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/47686851/Psych-202-Exam-1docx/ This study source was downloaded by 100000840507698 from CourseHero.com on 02-16-2022 17:54:19 GMT -06:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/47686851/Psych-202-Exam-1docx/ Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)