Download Between the colorblind and the colorconscious

Between Colorblind and Colorconscious: Contemporary Hollywood Films and Struggles
Over Racial Representation
Author(s): Jason Smith
Source: Journal of Black Studies , NOVEMBER 2013, Vol. 44, No. 8 (NOVEMBER 2013),
pp. 779-797
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24572892
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Journal of Black Studies
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Article
Journal of Black Studies
44(8) 779-797
Between Colorblind
and Colorconscious:
Contemporary
Hollywood Films and
Struggles Over Racial
Representation
) The Author(s) 2013
rvepnnis ana permissions;
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0021934713516860
jbs.sagepub.com
(DSAGE
Jason Smith'
Abstract
Hollywood films reflect the racial order in which they are made. The
sociological significance of understanding racial representations within films
is highlighted in this study as it recognizes that films offer a useful site for
contentious views of the racial order—colorblind and colorconscious—
to be played out. Focusing on films with an African American actor and/
or actress, this study will highlight how actors and actresses in these films
demonstrate the pervasiveness of racial inequality, as well as how the films
still maintain a colorblind framework. Although the colorblind framework
persists, acknowledging the presence of colorconscious themes is a new
perspective that can help challenge the colorblind framework.
Keywords
African Americans, motion pictures, colorblind, colorconscious, racial
politics, popular culture
Within the realm of popular culture, the concept of race has always been a
contentious issue. When combined with other structural forces, such as class
'George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Jason Smith, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, 3G5, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA.
Email: [email protected]
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780 Journal of Black Studies 44(8)
and gender, racial representations have worked to sup
most prevalent site of popular culture where this tensio
industry. For African Americans, the representations
ranged from the overt racist imagery seen in The B
covert modern-day rehashings of old stereotypes as
fdms (e.g., The Green Mile). As the film industry is
White-male producers, writers, and executives, opp
such representations are situated on the margins of th
ing their way into its center. Although power and lea
rary mainstream Hollywood film industry is led by Wh
2008), significant in-roads have been made by Black
directors—leveraging that position for more power o
films. Thus, today Hollywood films are contestable
even, for the racial representations seen on the silver
the level of Black star power grows within the indus
representations display more variance than in the pas
Hollywood films are reflections of the times in w
whereby the racial representations that audiences see
order of the given moment. Yet the perspectives
actresses bring to the table play a role in shifting how
sented. This study will focus on the ways in which
feature a Black actor and/or actress in a leading role
sent elements of colorblindness or, its opposite, col
tion, this article will highlight the advances that acto
films have made in demonstrating the pervasivenes
well as how the films still maintain a colorblind fra
analysis will point to some evidence of transformatio
seem to represent a subtle shifting in the colorblind f
The Colorblind and the Colorconscious
To study the media sociologically, an emphasis must be placed on the part
played by the structure of society and the external social forces that define
how roles are created and enacted (Grazian, 2010; McQuail, 1985; Turner,
2006). McQuail (1985) noted early on that the media is not a neutral channel,
but that messages are derived from theories, traditions, norms, and practices
belonging to complex social institutions. Therefore, to understand how
African Americans are portrayed in Hollywood films is to situate those por
trayals in a historical context which takes into account the racialized structure
of American society. The trajectory of America's racially stratified society—
from slavery, to emancipation, to Jim Crow racism and overt racist practices,
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Smith
to
781
the
civil
dynamic
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where
also
r
pr
pro
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intricate
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when
In
he
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political
them
Historian
ing
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Br
the
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servatives
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erfully
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even
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(p.
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porary
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tinually
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various
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782 Journal of Black Studies 44(8)
Although the election of President Barack Obama
America has made on some level, it is mistakenly use
is post-racial—where the cultural logic behind Pres
one that masks the power relations which maintain
rounding race (Robinson, 2009). As a political tool,
used and implemented by those who most benefit by
reason, therefore, that the oppositional political to
blindness would be colorconsciousness. As racial eve
colorconsciousness is to (a) expose the assumed neut
validate the experiences and perspectives of people
practices, and (d) point out institutional racism
Battey, 2011). Given the recent focus on colorblind
significance, it is instructive to probe the research p
explain or examine its existence. A study of films, a
cles, may well be the best approach to illustrate the
colorblindness in contemporary society.
(Re)Visiting Hollywood Film and Rac
Representation
Although recent studies of Hollywood films have e
which unequal representations promote racial exclus
of White privilege (Hughey, 2009; Lipsitz, 1998; Mo
& Gordon, 2003), they serve to depict the degree t
oppressed dynamics exist. Speaking to this dynami
to a structure of "cinethetic racism," which espouse
and White heteronormative narratives. This cinethet
contemporary colorblind perspective on race. But t
colorblind ideology might be challenged. This often
tion of hegemony, in which there is a "general dir
life by the dominant fundamental group" (Gramsci,
throughout such studies. Overlooked in this theoret
of hegemony—a recognition that ideology is not dir
ried out through shifting alliances and compromises
groups (Chambers, 1986). Explaining the hegemony
pointed out that the goal of Gramsci's conception of
the direct imposition of ideals and beliefs but also t
and individual consciousness as they interact with
images from the dominating group(s). Hawley notes
ested in the level of agency given back to those who
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Smith
783
outlets
and
displays
merely
While
the
a
m
pr
impos
in
agr
productio
groups
alter
structure.
tance
of
Al
film
aspects
of
that
occur
cu
on
television,
makes
This
but
is
not
is,
dangers
much
The
lo
is
for
await
to
keep
tightrop
tations
tion
o
a
neither
media
J
note
in
that
which
is
Ho
the
not
tions
that
are
status
quo.
A
will
tage
not
of
be
ab
the
sp
Method
As noted earlier, power relations in Hollywood are largely unequal. This
inequality leads to films which depict African Americans in minor and ste
reotyped ways. Black actors and actresses work within confined areas of
Hollywood to produce results which alter these racial positions. Given that
these in-roads exist, more social science research is required to describe and
explain the changing landscape. As the unit of analysis will be motion pic
tures, the most appropriate method for this research is a content analysis.
However, due to the unequal distribution of power in Hollywood it is hard to
generalize from findings in which a limited number of cases—outlined
below—can be drawn. An interpretive approach to content analysis was used
to collect data in this study (Altheide, 1987; Berg & Lune, 2012; Charmaz,
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784 Journal of Black Studies 44(8)
2008). This approach adheres to pre-established categ
colorblind and colorconscious, outlined below—w
ideas to emerge (Altheide, 1987), which are related ba
the broader concerns of the research question (
Throughout the coding stage, the researcher coded
conscious variables, but was reflexive in viewing the
constant comparison between them throughout the c
rewatching films to verify concepts. This approach a
be both systematic and analytic.
Sampling and coding were completed in the summ
from blockbuster films produced during 1989-2009
years was chosen to represent films that have been m
of contentious racial politics in the United States
1995) and to reflect a more contemporary sample. M
busters were those that had United States box-office
million. The sampling of blockbuster films was cho
rely on recycled film techniques and narratives in or
revenue from theatrical release (Baker & Faulkner,
also are the most visible films within the larger pub
tion and criticism. In order to assess challenges t
which feature a Black actor/actress in the top-five b
sampling requirement. Taking the exclusions into acco
82 films, in which a random sample of 25 films was
Assessing Colorblindness and Colorconsciousness
I have drawn on scholarship which has probed the re
racialism and films, using these insights to develop a
edging colorblindness in films. In addition, in order
colorconsciousness among characters played by Black
these films, I referred back to the sociological literatu
structural elements of racism in contemporary Amer
How Black characters deal with their socially given
works to observe whether colorblindness or colorco
Crucial to colorblind ideology is the idea that individ
make it on their own, without the assistance of other
connection with the Black community is important
viewing these films, given that the social isolation th
ening to White heteronormativity (Gates, 2004; Hagg
ture of the colorblind ideology is the interracial bud
fictional friendships to ignore institutionalized racism
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Smith
Table
785
I.
List
o
Production
Production
Box-office
Box-o
revenue
Film title
company
Year
(in U.S. dollars)
2 Fast 2 Furious
Universal
2003
127,154,901
The 40-Year-Old Virgin
Universal
2005
109,449,237
American Gangster
Universal
2007
130,164,645
Bringing Down the House
Touchstone
2003
132,716,677
Collateral
Dreamworks
2004
101,005,703
Daddy Day Care
Columbia/TriStar
2003
104,297,061
Doctor Dolittle
20th Century Fox
1998
144,156,605
Enemy of the State
Touchstone
1998
111,549,836
101,295,562
Eraser
Warner Brothers
1996
Evan Almighty
Ghost
Universal
2007
100,462,298
Paramount
1990
217,631,306
Hancock
Sony Pictures
2008
227,946,274
Hitch
Columbia/TriStar
2005
179,495,555
Jerry Maguire
Columbia/TriStar
1996
153,952,592
Lethal Weapon 3
Warner Brothers
1992
144,731,527
The Matrix
Warner Brothers
1999
171,479,930
The Matrix Reloaded
Warner Brothers
2003
281,576,461
Mission: Impossible II
Paramount
2000
215,409,889
Ocean's Thirteen
Warner Brothers
2007
117,154,724
Rush Hour
New Line Cinema
1998
141,186,864
380,270,577
Star Wars: Episode III
20th Century Fox
2005
The Sum of All Fears
Paramount
2002
118,907,036
Traffic
USA Home
2000
124,115,725
X2: X-men United
20th Century Fox
2003
214,949,694
X-Men: The Last Stand
20th Century Fox
2006
234,362,462
Entertainment
2011). As colorblindness seeks to individualize race and ignore the inequali
ties that are linked to it, the process of coding colorconsciousness seeks to
make apparent the ways in which race is a factor in the daily lives of Black
characters. Coding for colorconsciousness relied on opposite measures of
those for colorblindness. For example, actions of Black characters to make
apparent the structural dimensions of racial inequality were worked into the
coding of colorconsciousness throughout the viewing of these films. Open
and descriptive coding, sometimes extending beyond the boundaries of the
previously created categories, was utilized to capture the blending of the col
orblind and colorconscious aspects portrayed in these films. The main focus
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786 Journal of Black Studies 44(8)
centered on the interaction between characters of dif
race was understood and experienced between those c
The following two sections highlight the struggle b
colorconscious representations in these films. Both se
based, given that the focus of this study is the contes
films provide for racial representations, and that the in
method is more focused on the context presented in
generalizability. In order to probe these representati
through paying attention to the social settings in which
well as the shared struggles these characters experienc
It is through these two dimensions that Black charac
the line between colorblind and colorconscious presen
Interacting in Social Settings
A contemporary reality of America is a society whe
gation is no longer present or accepted by a majority
other side of this coin is the recognition of embedded
tices, such as residential segregation, that exists des
large number of Blacks in more integrated social se
(Adelman, 2004; Ford, 2011 ; Iceland & Wilkes, 2006)
ied, there is a mixing of the social worlds of Black
most vividly in the workplace, residency, and friend
settings of these films provide context to the interacti
well as recognizable spaces in which audiences can vi
and colorconscious actions vary in such spaces.
The films depict a variety of places where charact
although most focus on the workplace. The ideas of
orconsciousness exist as two opposite ends of a spectr
and narratives of these films fall in between. The fully
colorconscious does not exist in any of the social sett
in the films is a complex image of the ways in which
orconsciousness are exemplified within certain socia
This complexity explains why in those films Blacks ar
ing upon spaces and/or a part of those spaces.
Workplace
In a number of films, characters interact in desegregated workplaces.
Desegregated workplaces exist in films such as Dr. Dolittle, Enemy of the
State, Eraser, Rush Elour, The Sum of All Fears, and Traffic, which exemplify
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Smith
the
787
notion
such
as
characters
ers.
Yet
a
characteristic of the Black characters in relation to their White co-workers.
Other than their one White co-worker friend, Black characters in the work
place generally have no one with whom to share their concerns. This isolation
is seen, for example, in the film Dr. Dolittle in which John Dolittle, amid the
selling of his successful medical practice to a large medical company,
becomes burdened with finding out he can talk to animals while also trying
to find time to devote to his family. Although the addition of a supernatural
ability is added to the narrative, John is forced to undergo the stress and
physical inconvenience of performing needed daily activities by himself.
While throughout the film he is able to vent his frustrations verbally to the
animals with which he comes into contact, he is utterly alone in the work
place. Likewise, in Enemy of the State, Robert Dean works as a successful
lawyer in a prestigious Washington, D.C., law firm, in which he is almost
completely alone. His personal and home life kept separate from his work
place. Despite being friends with a fellow White lawyer at his firm, when his
world is turned upside down by the antagonists of the film, Robert's friend
becomes non-existent, and only when information out of context about his
life is brought to the firm's attention do they take notice of it by firing Robert.
The extent to which Blacks enter the workplace in these films is limited; they
live a contained and lonely existence that is often marginal, and to a certain
degree, separated from Whites.
Workplace and the Home
Other films observed depicted interracial settings both in the workplace and
in the home of the characters. Due to racial mixing and interaction both at
work and in the home (or community), more interracial friendships were seen
in these films. Films which demonstrated this were 40 Year Old Virgin,
Bringing Down the House, Daddy Day Daycare, Jerry Maguire, and Lethal
Weapon 3. The common thread throughout these films was the use of the
buddy formula—where the interracial friendships exhibited were usually
kept one-on-one; that is, between the White main character and his one Black
friend, with the exception of Daddy Day Care where the tables were turned
and a Black male was the main character. The interracial friendships in these
films, like the films which only displayed interracial mixture in the work
place, are kept within certain boundaries. However, these boundaries are less
rigid than films which depict an interracial workplace. The singularity of the
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t
doct
r
di
788 Journal of Black Studies 44(8)
Black friend heightens their presence yet also allows
consciousness to emerge.
Certain films (40 Year Old Virgin and Daddy Day Car
while others walked a fine line of joking about race
matters. Bringing Down the House and Jerry Maguir
colorconsciousness was apparent—whether it is Char
the House) commenting that Whites refuse to step
acceptable, or Rod (Jerry Maguire) commenting tha
National Footbal League corporate executives—but
in contradictory terms. Most notable in this regard
Down the House. The contact between Peter, a succe
yer, and Charlene, a Black female who is an escaped
line of joking/discussing racial issues. Peter's social
upper-middle-class environment—ranging from the
the exclusive country club, and the pristine suburb
introduction of Charlene, from the moment she firs
step and greets him with a swerve of the head and
this social world. Various jokes throughout the film
expense. She has to play along in order to stay in thi
ple of such an occurrence is when Charlene surprises
and the only reason Peter can give to explain her pre
is his children's nanny. While giving into Peter's plea
responds,
Yessir. Now I'm gonna go on down to the pool wit the child'n, maybe we can
make fun of the White folks again, huh kids?
While giving into Peter's needs to "keep her under wraps," Charlene
exhibits her own form of resistance that calls out both Peter's and his fellow
Whites' subtle forms of discrimination. The use of a satirical southern dialect
that alludes to the pre-Civil Rights era to address Peter's actions creates a
counterpoint to the contemporary setting in which the film takes place. By
invoking this dialect, Charlene is able to signal the institutionalized racism
that is present at the country club—where the presence of a Black female can
only be described by her position as a caretaker. Examples like this occur
throughout the film, and comedy is often introduced to negate its serious
impacts, operating in a context of "hyper-irony and manic-satire" (Hughey &
Muradi, 2009)—where the line between authentic and satirical racism is
blurred. However, the contact between Charlene and Peter is one that pushes
the boundaries of understanding one another. Peter's assumptions of Charlene
are transformed over the course of the film as he realizes that his position and
status offer him many privileges. While this element of colorconsciousness is
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Smith
789
present,
it
st
vidualistic
his
in
or
un
her
which
ow
rac
Encroachin
Noted
part
earlier
of
the
boundaries
allotted
more
se
room
domina
Down
the
2003)
Ho
role
th
Whiteness
enter
re
these
there.
a
Part
a
these
charact
due
to
variou
One
strategy
(Chito
ture
who
are
Childs
practice
exhibit
used
color
Weapon
the
to
does
m
no
3,
an
interraci
family
man,
rounded
would
and
defy
threat
of
t
Bla
framework
this
enters
ity
the
film)
Black
he
the
of
the
i
otherwi
pic
fi
is
teenag
becomes,
the
funeral
mother
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o
when
790 Journal of Black Studies 44(8)
You want to do something Sergeant Murtaugh? You find
gun in my son's hand.
This encounter throws Roger into the forefront of
few scenes, for now he is responsible for tracing the
illegal firearms throughout Los Angeles. Roger
accented in a scene in which he interrogates a Black
Roger: "Where did this gun come from?"
Criminal: "Fuck you!"
Roger: "Ever heard of the word "genocide?" Have you, s
Have you heard of genocide? You fools are killing your
us! I'm tired of it! I'm tired of it!"
This individualized moment, accentuated by Ro
of it!" thrust the problems of crime faced by inner
Black community's shoulders. During the scene,
shows Martin standing beside the car, face hidde
appears to be peeking over it to watch Roger. H
commented on this same film, and in particular
between the two characters in relation to Roger's sh
his immediate reaction to it. As Martin finds Rog
each character's personal turmoil is brought to t
upset his partner will be retiring and abandonin
shooting of the teen. Carby (1998) noted that th
reproduces on the screen a contemporary politic
America, having demanded and gained equality,
the white and middle-class American that gracio
demands" (p. 186). Martin's background presence i
adds to the image that gang/inner-city violence is u
The exceptional status of Roger, who has "made
suburban life, shows that Black crime is individ
Black subculture of violence. Colorblindness is both exhibited and main
tained in this example, as structural reasons why inner-city violence and
segregation occur are left out of the picture (Feldmeyer, 2010; Massey,
1999). Other films which featured exceptional Blacks, although not to the
extreme and depth of Lethal Weapon 3, were Doctor Dolittle, Hitch, and
The Sum of All Fears. Within these films, the exceptional exception frame
works to normalize Black characters—making them suitable for spaces of
White residence, that is, only if they display certain characteristics.
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Smith
791
Shared
As
S
described
very
clear
instances,
second
b
it
conte
characters
films,
ai
conte
relationship
ters
in
past
character.
character
Al
w
throughout
in
the
acters
This
to
recipro
the
curren
equality
tion
is
in
t
between
received
a
the
characte
the
magical
the
problem
Whites
are
a
rational-disc
characters
h
a
dominatin
while
st
race
reciprocal
films,
un
the
m
investment
synonymous
works
lems
to
ma
occurrin
When
Max
W
distinguished
collective
general
claims
to
maintain
films.
aut
the
In
Maguire,
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"p
and
fi
wh
792 Journal of Black Studies 44(8)
so through legitimate methods that connected them
authority. For example, when Peter is asked by Cha
a false criminal record, it is Peter's legal knowledg
high-priced lawyer that are relied upon to do so (Br
Roy relies on his expertise as a public relations exper
corporate world to "remake" Hancock into a superh
status as a sport agent and knowledge of the law to
deal (Jerry Maguire). In contrast to these, Black cha
relied on variations of their folk wisdom and magica
low White characters overcome moral hurdles and
changing events/decisions—removed from forms of
contemporary society. When Black characters h
forms of authority, such as in the films Enemy of th
of rational thought seems to evade them. Instead, th
these films are reliant upon other White characters
authority to come to their rescue—further restrain
engagement with dominating power structures.
The film Hitch was the only film to have a comple
"thinker" and "feeling" Black characters. The premise o
a Black male, as a dating consultant for (mainly) Wh
the art of dating, Hitch proceeded to give clients a "ste
ing the women of their dreams. In comparison with Rod
assisted Jerry to tap into his emotions and feelings, H
this aspect from the solution to the problem by the use
opening scene of the film, which posits that women
swept off their feet, Hitch breaks up this sense of roman
Basic principles ... No woman wakes up saying, "God, I h
off my feet today" . . . You believe that? Neither doe
Because she's lying to you, that's why . . . It's not a b
doesn't need any space. She may be into her career ..
saying is, "Get away from me now." Or possibly, "Try
which one is it?
60% of all human communication is nonverbal. Body
tone. So that means that 90% of what you're saying... ai
mouth. Luckily, the fact is that just like the rest of u
woman doesn't know what she wants until she sees it. And that's where I come
in. My job is to open her eyes.
This use of a pseudo-scientific method to assist in acquiring love from
women by Hitch is employed throughout the film: acting a specific
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Smith
way,
793
talking
majority
of
r
love"
that
pla
(e.g.,
tion
near
suit
that
Neale,
1
requires
the
end
o
and
lands
Hitch,
authority,
wisdom.
being
tures
His
based
such
levels
w
sim
of
in
as
socia
comfortable
New
s
York
l
Cit
Liberty
on
a
and
character
means
of
Similar
stru
to
pas
exclusionary
characters
positions
in
(e
of
p
films,
their
a
rather
than
r
mate
authorit
Enemy
of
struggle
realm
of
mixture
th
that
color
of
co
by
which
the
failed
to
allow
Conclusion
This study looked at the ways in which colorblindness is both maintained and
opposed in contemporary Hollywood films. Elements of colorconsciousness
assist in creating avenues for alternative presentations to be displayed on the
screens of theaters, home television sets, computer screens, and mobile
devices. Consistent with theories of hegemonic control and representation in
regard to culture, the ability for Black actors and actresses to create displays
of colorconsciousness in film is competing with larger discourses of
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794 Journal of Black Studies 44(8)
colorblindness. This limits the scope and impact
which challenges individualized definitions of race, r
is ironic, though, to find that stereotyped portrayals
films allowed room for a colorconscious framework t
shape. Most notable in this regard was the film Bri
especially the ways in which the character Charlene
stereotypes to expose the structural racial practices tha
society. Further research on the inversion of stereot
taken in order to understand it fully and what it mea
tation in contemporary films. The fact that this film w
to the complex nature of humor when dealing with
humor can be useful for African Americans in dealin
(Boskin, 1997), the gains provided by humor can be
are the only outlet giving that space for such comm
addition, the shared sense of struggles that Black
undergo in these films point to a dynamic that has th
doors to more colorconscious themes and situations.
The break from White led narratives is still a new and potentially revolu
tionary change in contemporary Hollywood film. These gains are only real
ized, however, once certain obstacles that adhere to a colorblind ideology are
overcome—primarily the lack of access to legitimate authority that Black
characters have and the highly individualized nature of Hollywood storytell
ing. The shifting of racial images in the films studied point to both a complex
and fluid dynamic through which race relations are carried out. While still
maintaining a colorblind ideology, they point to less rigid boundaries of con
trol and exclusion in which in-roads can be made to break up systems of
White privilege—presenting potential for Feagin's (2010) call toward a
reframing of racial hierarchies. Although elements of colorconsciousness are
brief, highlighting their presence in these mainstream, blockbuster films is a
research project worth elaborating. In the past, critical images and discourses
of race were left to films which were specifically targeted to racially under
represented audiences (Chaisson, 2000; Entman & Rojecki, 2000), thereby
making these films marginal and not seen by White audiences. A space once
occupied solely by Whites, Hollywood-produced blockbuster films are
undergoing a unique transformation in the ways that race is conceived and
portrayed.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Rutledge Dennis, Shannon Davis, and Joseph Scimecca
for their guidance through this research project. Additional thanks to Woody Doane
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Smith
and
nal
795
David
LoCo
reviewers
of
Declaration
The
author
authorship,
de
and
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publica
tion of this article.
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Author Biography
Jason Smith is a PhD student in sociology at George Mason University, where he is
a graduate lecturer and a research assistant at the Center for Social Science Research.
He is currently about to start his dissertation research focusing on diversity policy
issues within the media landscape.
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