Download Spectroscopy

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Introduction of spectroscopy
UV-Visible spectroscopy (Electronic
Spectroscopy)
3.
Infrared spectroscopy ( IR spectroscopy)
4.
Microwave spectroscopy
Studying the properties of matter through its interaction with different
frequency components of the electromagnetic spectrum. The term
"spectroscopy" defines a large number of techniques that use radiation to
obtain information on the structure and properties of matter.
The basic principle shared by all spectroscopic techniques is to pass a
beam of electromagnetic radiation onto a sample, and observe how it
responds to such radiation. The response is usually recorded as a function
of radiation wavelength. A plot of the response as a function of
wavelength is referred to as a spectrum.
It is the most powerful tool available for the study of atomic and
molecular structures. It is used in the analysis of wide range of samples.
Electromagnetic radiation is an oscillating electric and magnetic
disturbance that spreads as a wave through empty space, the vacuum.
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electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are
synchronized oscillations of both electric and magnetic fields which are
perpendicular to each other.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature as they propagate by
varying the electric and magnetic fields such that the two fields are
perpendicular to each other.
Accelerated charges are responsible to produce electromagnetic waves.
The energy changes within a molecule during emission or absorption
electromagnetic radiation are quantized.
Each particular frequency of light has a particular energy associated with
it, given by another simple equation.
E=hv E=energy of radiation
h=planck’s Constant
v=Frequency of radiation
TYPE 1:
A) Atomic Spectroscopy : It is concerned with interactions of Electro
Magnetic Radiations with atoms.
B) Molecular Spectroscopy : It is concerned with interactions of electro
Magnetic Radiations with molecules
TYPE 2:
A) ABSORPTION SPECTRUM:
If the electromagnetic radiations are passed through a substance, the dark
pattern of lines that are obtained corresponding to wave lengths absorbed
is known as Absorption spectrum.
B) EMISSION SPECTRUM:
If electromagnetic radiations are passed through a substance, the pattern
of lines recorded after the emission of the absorbed wave lengths are
known as emission spectrum.
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The theory revolving around this concept states that the energy from the
absorbed ultraviolet radiation is actually equal to the energy difference
between the higher energy state and the ground state.
UV spectrophotometer principle follows the Beer-Lambert Law. This law
states that whenever a beam of monochromatic light is passed through a
solution with an absorbing substance, the decreasing rate of the radiation
intensity along with the thickness of the absorbing solution is actually
proportional to the concentration of the solution and the incident
radiation.
This law is expressed through this equation:
A = log (I0/I) = ECI
A stands for the absorbance, I0 refers to the intensity of light upon a
sample cell, l refers to the intensity of light departing the sample cell, C
stands for the concentration of the solute, L stands for the length of the
sample cell and E refers to the molar absorptivity.
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The absorption of UV or visible radiation corresponds to the excitation of
outer electrons.
Transitions are possible by involving π,σ, and n electrons.
When an atom or molecule absorbs energy, electrons are promoted from
their ground state to an excited state. In a molecule, the atoms can rotate
and vibrate with respect to each other. These vibrations and rotations also
have discrete energy levels, which can be considered as being packed on top
of each electronic level.
The ultraviolet region falls in the range between 200-400 nm, visible region
fall between 400-750 nm.
Absorption of radiation in this region causes electronic transitions between
electronic levels. This absorption changes vibrational and rotational levels
also.
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σ–σ* Transitions
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An electron in a bonding s orbital is excited to the corresponding
antibonding orbital. The energy required is large. For example, methane
(which has only C-H bonds, and can only undergo σ–σ* transitions)
shows an absorbance maximum at 125 nm. Absorption maxima due to σ–
σ* transitions are not seen in typical UV-Vis. spectra (200 - 700 nm)
n–σ* Transitions
Saturated compounds containing atoms with lone pairs (non-bonding
electrons) are capable of n–σ* transitions. These transitions usually need
less energy than σ–σ* transitions. They can be initiated by light whose
wavelength is in the range 150 - 250 nm. The number of organic functional
groups with n–σ* peaks in the UV region is small.
n–π* and π–π* Transitions
Most absorption spectroscopy of organic compounds is based on
transitions of n or π electrons to the π excited state. This is because the
absorption peaks for these transitions fall in an experimentally convenient
region of the spectrum (200 - 700 nm). These transitions need an
unsaturated group in the molecule to provide the p electrons.
Molar absorbtivities from n–π* transitions are relatively low, and range
from 10 to100 L mol-1 cm-1 . π–π* transitions normally give molar
absorbtivities between 1000 and 10,000 L mol-1 cm-1 .
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When ultraviolet radiations are absorbed, this results in the excitation of
the electrons from the ground state towards a higher energy state.
Molecules containing π-electrons or non-bonding electrons (n-electrons)
can absorb energy in the form of ultraviolet light to excite these electrons
to higher anti-bonding molecular orbitals.
The more easily excited the electrons, the longer the wavelength of light it
can absorb. There are four possible types of transitions (π–π*, n–π*, σ–
σ*, and n–σ*), and they can be ordered as follows: σ–σ* > n–σ* > π–π* >
n–π*
The absorption of ultraviolet light by a chemical compound will produce a
distinct spectrum which aids in the identification of the compound.
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Detection of Impurities
It is one of the best methods for determination of impurities in organic
molecules.
Additional peaks can be observed due to impurities in the sample and it
can be compared with that of standard raw material.
By also measuring the absorbance at specific wavelength, the impurities
can be detected.
Structure elucidation of organic compounds
It is useful in the structure elucidation of organic molecules, such as in
detecting the presence or absence of unsaturation, the presence of hetero
atoms.
UV absorption spectroscopy can be used for the quantitative
determination of compounds that absorb UV radiation.
UV absorption spectroscopy can characterize those types of compounds
which absorbs UV radiation thus used in qualitative determination of
compounds. Identification is done by comparing the absorption spectrum
with the spectra of known compounds.
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This technique is used to detect the presence or absence of functional
group in the compound. Absence of a band at particular wavelength
regarded as an evidence for absence of particular group.
Kinetics of reaction can also be studied using UV spectroscopy. The UV
radiation is passed through the reaction cell and the absorbance
changes can be observed.
Many drugs are either in the form of raw material or in the form of
formulation. They can be assayed by making a suitable solution of the
drug in a solvent and measuring the absorbance at specific wavelength.
Molecular weights of compounds can be measured
spectrophotometrically by preparing the suitable derivatives of these
compounds.
UV spectrophotometer may be used as a detector for HPLC.
MICROWAVE-SPECTROSCOPY
APPLICATIONS