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AP PSYCHOLOGY Review for the AP Exam Chapter 5- SENSATION Chapter 5 Sensation *a process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energy Perception *a process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events Bottom-Up Processing *analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information Top-Down Processing *information processing guided by higher-level mental processes *as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations The implications of this top to bottom flow if information is that information coming into the system (perceptually) can be influenced by what the individual already knows about the information that is coming into the system Sensation- Basic Principles Psychophysics *study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them *Light- brightness *Sound- volume *Pressure- weight *Taste- sweetness TRANSDUCTION: transformation of one form of energy into another-- especially the transformation of stimulus information into nerve signals by the sense organs. Without transduction, ripe tomatoes would not appear red (or pinkish gray--in the case of many tomatoes purchased in the grocery store). SENSORY ADAPTATION--loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while, as when a swimmer becomes adapted to the temperature of the water. Absolute Threshold *minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus *usually defined as the stimulus needed for detection 50% of the time Difference Threshold *minimum difference between two stimuli that a subject can detect 50% of the time *just noticeable difference (JND) *increases with magnitude Sensation- Thresholds Signal Detection Theory *predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise) *assumes that there is no single absolute threshold *detection depends partly on person’s • experience • expectations • motivation • level of fatigue Weber’s Law- to perceive a difference between two stimuli, they must differ by a constant proportion – light intensity- 8% – weight- 2% – tone frequency- 0.3% Vision- Stabilized Images on the Retina Our perceptions are organized by the meanings our minds impose. Transduction- conversion of one form of energy to another Wavelength- the distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next Hue- dimension of color determined by wavelength of light Intensity- amount of energy in a wave determined by amplitude – brightness – loudness VisionSpectrum of Electromagnetic Energy Vision- Physical Properties of Waves Amplitude: greatness of magnitude….(physics) the maximum displacement of a periodic wave Wave amplitude determines the intensity of colors and sounds. Short wavelength=high frequency (bluish colors, high-pitched sounds) Great amplitude (bright colors, loud sounds) Long wavelength=low frequency (reddish colors, low-pitched sounds) Small amplitude (dull colors, soft sounds) Vision Pupil- adjustable opening in the center of the eye Iris- a ring of muscle that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening Lens- transparent structure behind pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina Vision Accommodation --the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina – change in shape of lens – focus near objects Retina --the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information – – – – – inner surface of eye light sensitive contains rods and cones layers of neurons beginning of visual information processing Vision Acuity- the sharpness of vision Nearsightedness --condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects in front of retina – nearby objects seen more clearly – lens focuses image of distant objects in front of retina Farsightedness --condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind retina – faraway objects seen more clearly – lens focuses near objects behind retina Vision Farsighted Vision Light rays from near objects focus behind the retina creating a blur. Nearsighted Vision Normal Vision Light rays from distant objects focus in front…when image reaches the back, the rays spread out creating a blur. Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors Optic nerve- nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain Blind Spot- point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind spot” because there are no receptor cells located there Fovea- central point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors Cones – near center of retina (fovea) – fine detail and color vision – daylight or well-lit conditions Rods – peripheral retina – detect black, white and gray – twilight or low light **Nocturnal animals such as mice, toads, rats and bats have retinas made up almost entirely of rods. **Rods are more sensitive to light than the cones which is why the world looks colorless at night. Vision- Receptors Receptors in the Human Eye Cones Rods Number 6 million 120 million Location in retina Center Periphery Sensitivity in dim light Low High Color sensitive? Yes No Visual Information Processing Feature Detectors – neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific features – shape – angle – movement Cell’s responses Stimulus Illusory Contours Subjective Contours Visual Information Processing Parallel Processing – simultaneous processing of several dimensions through multiple pathways (color, motion, form, depth) Trichromatic (three color) Theory – Young (1802) and Helmholtz (1850) – three different retinal color receptors • red You see colors according to their • green response to the wavelengths of light • blue striking the retina---short-preferring (blue), middle-preferring (green), and long-preferring (red). Visual Information Processing Opponent-Process Theoryopposing retinal processes enable color vision “ON” “OFF” red green green red blue yellow yellow blue black white white black Visual Information Processing Color Constancy Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object Audition Audition • the sense of hearing Frequency • the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time Pitch • a tone’s highness or lowness • depends on frequency Outer Ear – Auditory Canal – Eardrum Middle Ear --chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window Inner Ear --innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs – oval window – Cochlea-- coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear – basilar membrane – hair cells Audition- The Ear Audition Place Theory – the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated Frequency Theory – the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch How We Locate Sounds Conduction Hearing Loss – hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea Nerve Hearing Loss – hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve Amplitude required for perception relative to 20-29 year-old group Older people tend to hear low frequencies well but suffer hearing loss for high frequencies 20-29 years 1 time 30-39 years 40-49 years 10 times 100 times 1000 times 50-59 years Over 60 years 32 64 128 256 512 1024 2048 4096 8192 16384 Frequency of tone in waves per second Low Pitch High Touch Skin Sensations – pressure • only skin sensation with identifiable receptors – warmth – cold – pain Pain Gate-Control Theory – theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain – “gate” opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers – “gate” closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain Sometimes a child can be afflicted with a disorder known as CIPA -- congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis, She can feel touch, her brain doesn't receive signals that she's experiencing pain, and she hardly sweats. When Gabby was 4 months old, she was biting her fingers until they bled. By the time she was 2, her teeth had to be removed so she wouldn't hurt herself. When she was a toddler, Gabby scratched her cornea and was given eye gel, The thick gel had a reflux reaction to rub your eye, Because one eye became so infected, it had to be removed Taste Taste Sensations – sweet – sour – salty – bitter Sensory Interaction – the principle that one sense may influence another – as when the smell of food influences its taste Age, Sex and Sense of Smell Number of correct answers Women and young adults have best sense of smell 4 Women 3 Men 2 0 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 Age Group 70-79 80-89 90-99 Body Position and Movement Kinesthesis – the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts Vestibular Sense – the sense of body movement and position – including the sense of balance PERCEPTION Chapter 6 Perception Selective Attention focus of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus ….means that at any moment we focus our awareness on only a limited aspect of all that we are capable of experiencing. Change Blindness Perceptual Illusions Perceptual Illusions Perceptual Illusions Perceptual Illusions Picture or a word? Perceptual Organization- Gestalt Visual Capture tendency for vision to dominate the other senses Gestalt--an organized whole tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes Escher Perceptual Organization- Gestalt Grouping the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups – – – – – Grouping Principles proximity- group nearby figures together similarity- group figures that are similar continuity- perceive continuous patterns closure- fill in gaps connectedness- spots, lines and areas are seen as unit when connected ___ ___ ___ - ___ ___ - ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ - ___ ___ ___ - ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ - ___ ___ ___ ___ Perceptual Organization- Grouping Principles Closure Illusory Contours Perceptual Organization Figure and Ground-organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground) Perceptual Organization- Grouping Principles Gestalt grouping principles are at work here. Perceptual Organization-Depth Perception Depth Perception – ability to see objects in three dimensions – allows us to judge distance Binocular cues – retinal disparity • images from the two eyes differ • closer the object, the larger the disparity – convergence • neuromuscular cue • two eyes move inward for near objects Visual Cliff Perceptual Organization-Depth Perception Monocular Cues – relative size ** • smaller image is more distant – interposition • closer object blocks distant object – relative clarity • hazy object seen as more distant – texture coarse --> close fine --> distant – relative height ** • higher objects seen as more distant – relative motion • closer objects seem to move faster – linear perspective • parallel lines converge with distance – relative brightness • closer objects appear brighter Interposition Light & Shadow Perceptual Organization-Depth Perception Perspective Techniques Perceptual Organization: Depth Perception Illusory Depth Photographer Walter Wick cut out pieces of paper shaped to imitate stair positions and colored them to simulate light and shadow. Perceptual Constancy Perceptual Constancy perceiving objects as unchanging despite changes in retinal image • color • shape • size Ponzo Illusion Perceptual Organization-Muller-Lyer Illusion Perceptual Organization-Brightness Contrast Perceptual OrganizationBrightness Contrast Perceptual Constancy: We know that the shadow doesn’t change the color of tile B to the same as tile A, even when it looks that way. Sensory RestrictionBlakemore & Cooper, 1970 Kittens raised without exposure to horizontal lines later had difficulty perceiving horizontal bars. Perceptual Interpretation Perceptual Adaptation – (vision) ability to adjust to an artificially displaced visual field • prism glasses Perceptual Set – a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another Perceptual SetSchemas What you see in the center is influenced by perceptual set Perception and the Human Factor Human Factors Psychology explores how people and machines interact explores how machine and physical environments can be adapted to human behaviors Perceptual Set- Human Factors 10 Altitude (thousands of feet) Pilot’s perceived descent path 8 6 Altitude looks this much higher 4 2 0 Actual descent path 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 Distance from runway (miles) 2 CONSCIOUSNESS Chapter 7 Consciousness *our awareness of ourselves and our environments *the process by which the brain creates a model of internal and external experience. CORE CONCEPT: Consciousness can take many forms, while other mental processes occur simultaneously outside our awareness. STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS Some occur spontaneously Some are physiologically induced Some are psychologically induced Daydreaming Drowsiness Dreaming Hallucinations Orgasm Food or oxygen starvation Sensory deprivation Hypnosis Meditation Consciousness is not good at multitasking: So, if you try to drive while talking on the cell phone, you have to shift your attention back and forth between tasks. The NONCONSCIOUS MIND *Preconscious: defined as memories of events (i.e. a wedding) and facts (i.e. Lansing is the capital of Michigan) that have once been the focus of attention *Unconscious: defined as many levels of processing that occur without awareness, including brain systems and others that can have subtle influences on behavior. PRIMING: a technique that has an influence on answers people give without their being conscious that they were influenced. There are many possible answers to this question, but I increased the probability that you would chose the word, DEFINE, by using it twice in the previous slide. Sleep and Dreams Biological Rhythms periodic physiological fluctuations Circadian Rhythm the biological clock regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle, such as of wakefulness and body temperature Daydreaming *mildly, altered state of consciousness *attention inward to memories, expectations, and desires often with vivid mental imagery REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep *recurring sleep stage *vivid dreams “paradoxical sleep” muscles are generally relaxed, but other body systems are active Brain Waves and Sleep Stages Alpha Waves slow waves of a relaxed, awake brain Delta Waves large, slow waves of deep sleep Hallucinations false sensory experiences Stages in a Typical Night’s Sleep Awake Sleep stages 1 2 3 REM 4 0 1 2 3 4 Hours of sleep 5 6 7 Sleep Across the Lifespan How much sleep we need depend on several factors: *genetics--different for each species *circadian rhythms *personal characteristics and habits *exercise influences the need for sleep (however, strenuous physical activity increase the amount of slow-wave stage 4 sleep) What interferes with sleep? *Exercise increases endorphins and activity in your system. It is best to exercise in the early morning or late afternoon. *Eating activates the digestive system. It is best to eat prior to 6 or 7:00 pm. *Alcohol depresses activity in the brain that control our selfmonitoring behaviors. While it will initially induce relaxation, overuse will interfere with REM sleep and cause insomnia and infrequent sleep patterns. Dreams *sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind *hallucinatory imagery *discontinuities *incongruities *delusional acceptance of the content *difficulties remembering Sigmund Freud--The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) wish fulfillment discharge otherwise unacceptable feelings Manifest Content remembered story line Latent Content underlying meaning As Information Processing helps facilitate memories REM Rebound REM sleep increases following REM sleep deprivation ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS THEORY Dreams result when the sleeping brain tries to make sense of its own spontaneous bursts of activity. In this view, dreams originate when their own periodic neural discharges emitted by the brain stem. When the energy sweeps over the cerebral cortex, the sleeper experiences impressions of sensation, memory, motivation, emotion and movement. (Hobson, McCarley 1977) Sleep Disorders Insomnia *persistent problems in falling or staying asleep Narcolepsy *uncontrollable sleep attacks Sleep Apnea *temporary cessation of breathing, as much as several hundred times a night …..(it’s normal to cease breathing a few times an hour during the night) *momentary reawakenings Nightmares Occur in REM sleep during the early morning hours Night Terrors occur within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, usually during Stage 4 high arousal-- appearance of being terrified Hypnosis Hypnosis a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur Posthypnotic Amnesia supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion Dissociation a split in consciousness allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others Hidden Observer Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis Explaining Hypnosis Uses of hypnosis: *Research--can induce temporary mental conditions (anxiety, hallucinations, depression) *Treatment--phobias, eliminating unwanted behaviors (smoking, eating) *Anesthesia--medical & dental practices (not everyone can do this) Drugs and Consciousness Psychoactive Drug a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood Physical Dependence physiological need for a drug marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms Psychological Dependence Tolerance a psychological need to use a drug for example, to relieve negative emotions diminishing effect with regular use Withdrawal discomfort and distress that follow discontinued use Depressants drugs that reduce neural activity, inhibits the transmission of messages in CNS slow body functions alcohol, barbiturates, opiates, benzodiazepines Stimulants drugs that excite neural activity in CNS Dangers include frightening hallucinations, paranoid delusions; children born to users at at increased risk for cognitive problems, emotional difficulties and behaviorcontrol disorders. speed up body functions, increase concentration, reduce behavior in ADHD. caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, methamphetamine, MDMA (ecstacy), Psychoactive Drugs Hallucinogens psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input Most hallucinogens work at the receptor sites for the neurotransmitter serotonin LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, PCP, cannabis Opiates opium and its derivatives (morphine and heroin) opiates depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety Similar to body’s pain relieving chemicals, the endorphines Opium, morphine, heroin, codeine, methadone Psychoactive Drugs Barbiturates drugs that depress the activity of the CNS, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement Side effect of reducing REM sleep time; withdrawal from barbituates results in REM rebound and unpleasant dreams Sedatives, sleep, anesthetic, anticonvulsant Amphetamines drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes Weight control, counteract anesthesia Cocaine Euphoria and Crash Psychoactive Drugs Ecstasy (MDMA) synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen both short-term and long-term health risks LSD lysergic acid diethylamide a powerful hallucinogenic drug also known as acid THC the major active ingredient in marijuana triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations Psychoactive Drugs LEARNING Chapter 8 • Learning – relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience – experience (nurture) is the key to learning • John B. Watson viewed psychology as objective science • generally agreed-upon consensus today recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all schools of thought today It is widely known that human beings are born with only two natural fears. One is the fear of falling and the second is the fear of loud noises. Where, then, do all of our other fears come from? Overgeneralization John B. Watson in his experiment with Little Albert, an 11 month old baby, studied how emotions are learned. He presented (A) a white rat (CS) and (B) a loud noise (US) to Little Albert. After several pairings, Albert showed fear (CR) of the white rat. Later, Albert generalized the fear to stimuli that were simular to CS, such as (C) a beard. Association • We learn by association – Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence – Aristotle 2000 years ago – John Locke and David Hume 200 yrs ago • Associative Learning – learning that two events occur together • two stimuli • a response and its consequences CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Vs. OPERANT CONDITIONING The core of classical conditioning stems from reflex responses. A REFLEX is an unlearned response that is naturally elicited by specific stimuli that are biologically relevant for the organism. Prior to the experiment the “tone” used had no prior meaning for the dogs. This was a NEUTRAL STIMULUS and elicits no effect. * The UCS naturally elicits the UCR. Dogs were placed in a restraining harness. At regular intervals, a tone (NS) sounded and the dogs were given food (UCS). With repeated pairings of the NS and UCS, the neutral stimulus becomes the CS and dogs began salivating (CR). • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – effective stimulus that unconditionally-automatically and naturally- triggers a response • Unconditioned Response (UCR) – unlearned, naturally occurring automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus • salivation when food is in the mouth • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response • Conditioned Response (CR) – learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus Pavlov’s Classic Experiment Before Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) UCR (salivation) During Conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) No salivation After Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) Neutral stimulus (tone) UCR (salivation) CS (tone) CR (salivation) Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning SUMMARY Classical Conditioning – organism comes to associate two stimuli • lightning and thunder • tone and food – begins with a reflex – a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that evokes the reflex – neutral stimulus eventually comes to evoke the reflex Acquisition – the initial stage of learning, during which a response is established and gradually strengthened – in classical conditioning, the phase in which a stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response – in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response Extinction – diminishing of a CR – in classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS – in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced Spontaneous Recovery -reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR Generalization tendency for a stimuli similar to CS to evoke similar responses Discrimination – in classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal an UCS – in operant conditioning, responding differently to stimuli that signal a behavior will be reinforced or will not be reinforced Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning UCS (passionate kiss) UCR (sexual arousal) CS (onion breath) CS (onion breath) UCS (passionate Kiss) UCR (sexual arousal) CR (sexual arousal) UCS (drug) UCR (nausea) CS (waiting room) UCS (drug) CS (waiting room) CR (nausea) UCR (nausea) Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Harvard University Operant Conditioning – elaborated – type of learning in which Thorndike’s Law of Effect behavior is strengthened if – developed followed by reinforcement or behavioral diminished if followed by technology punishment Law of Effect – Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Thorndike's Puzzle Box, used a cat solving the puzzle of how to escape from the box. However, unlike Skinner's experiment with rats, the cat did not show any systematic strategies in learning. He simply scrambled around in the box until he stepped on the lever. From this, Thorndike proposed the Law of Effect which says that an animals learned response that results in rewarding consequences are strengthened, and the responses with punishing consequences are weakened. In one experiment, Skinner placed a rat inside a box with two levers, one that issued a reward when pulled and the other that issued a punishment. Over time, the rat began to stop pulling the lever that shocked him and just focused on the lever that gave him food. As a result, Skinner was able to show the effects of reinforcement and punishment in operant conditioning. Operant Conditioning Skinner Box – soundproof chamber with a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a food or water reward – contains a device to record responses Reinforcer – any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Shaping – conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal Successive Approximations – reward behaviors that increasingly resemble desired behavior Principles of Reinforcement Primary Reinforcer – innately reinforcing stimulus – satisfies a biological need Secondary Reinforcer Continuous Reinforcement – conditioned reinforcer – reinforcing the desired response – learned through association each time it occurs with primary reinforcer – learning occurs rapidly – extinction occurs rapidly Partial Reinforcement – reinforcing a response only part of the time – results in slower acquisition – greater resistance to extinction Schedules of Reinforcement 1) Fixed Ratio (FR) – reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses 2) Variable Ratio (VR) – like piecework pay reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because 3) Fixed Interval (FI) of unpredictability – reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed – response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for 4) Variable Interval (VI) reward draws near reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding like pop quiz In essence, if one's actions make the thing happen it is a ratio; if time must pass then it is an interval. Operant Conditioning We learn to associate a response and its consequence • Punishment – aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows – powerful controller of unwanted behavior Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressedbehavior returns when punishment is no longer eminent Causes increased aggression- shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems- Explains why aggressive delinquents and abusive parents come from abusive homes Creates fear that can generalize to desirable behaviors, e.g. fear of school, learned helplessness, depression Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior- reinforcement tells you what to do--punishment tells you what not to do- Combination of punishment and reward can be more effective than punishment alone Punishment teaches how to avoid it Latent Learning – learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Overjustification Effect – the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do – the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task Operant Conditioning Punishment Martin Seligman’s LEARNED HELPLESSNESS Taught dogs that they were helpless to escape from an electric shock by placing a barrier in the cage to prevent dogs from escaping when they were shocked. Removed the barrier but the dogs made no effort to escape. Father of Positive Psychology Univ. Pennsylvania This “learned helplessness” has been compared to people who are depressed. They feel past/future events are out of their control and they are helpless = depression. Cognition and Operant Conditioning Intrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective Extrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments Observational Learning – learning by observing and imitating others Modeling – process of observing and imitating behavior Prosocial Behavior – positive, constructive, helpful behavior – opposite of antisocial behavior Observational Learning Mirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy Albert Bandura wanted to study aggression in adolescents. He suggested that environment causes behavior, true; but behavior causes environment as well. He labeled this concept reciprocal determinism: The world and a person’s behavior cause each other. The bobo doll studies: *made of film of one of his students, a young woman, essentially beating up a bobo doll. *showed his film to groups of kindergartners who, as you might predict, liked it a lot. *when they were let out to play, the little kids started beating the daylights out of the bobo doll. He called the phenomenon observational learning or modeling, and his theory is usually called social learning theory. Components of Thought CONCEPTS: Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience. *building blocks of thinking *allow organization in systematic ways CONCEPTS: Might be *classes of objects (chairs, birds, birthday parties) *properties (red, large) CONCEPTS: TWO KINDS Natural concepts: mental classifications that develop out of everyday experiences in the world. (birds, mother’s face, artichokes, Statue of Liberty) Artificial concepts: defined by a set of rules or characteristics (dictionary definitions, mathematical formulas) *abstractions (truth, love) *relations (smarter than….) *procedures (how to tie your shoes) *intentions (intention to break into a conversation) We organize much of our memory into CONCEPT Animal Level 1 Level 2 HIERARCHIES. Bird Fish Level 3 Canary Ostrich Shark Salmon Cognitive Maps Mental, visual representation of the layout of one’s environment example- after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it Cognitive maps help you get to psychology class or drive your mom to the theatre or help you walk around your house. Schema: Cluster of related concepts that provides a general conceptual framework for thinking about a topic, an event, an object, people or a situation in one’s life. (Zimbardo) *provide contexts *provide expectations For example, take the word, TERMINAL. Are you in: *an airport? *a hospital? *an auto shop? How does the meaning change? *provide features likely to be found when encountering familiar people or situations. We also have SCHEMAS about persons, roles, and ourselves. An event schema is called a SCRIPT. We have scripts for going to restaurant, going to church, Culture influences our scripts. going to the library, or making U.S. servicewomen in the love. middle east had to change many behaviors taken for granted at home, such as walking unescorted in public or Conflicting scripts can make people awkward and difficult driving a car or wearing to understand. Sometimes it clothing that showed their can be so uncomfortable, they faces and legs, when they don’t want to play the scene went into Arab countries. again. INDUCTIVE REASONING: form of thinking using individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion. The ice is cold = all ice is cold DEDUCTIVE REASONING: form of thinking in which conclusions are inferred from premises, the conclusions are true if the premises are true (if this, then that) All men are mortal & Socrates is a man = Socrates is mortal What abilities do good thinkers possess? SELECT A STRATEGY: a) Identify the problem a) Trial and error (for simple problems) b) Select a strategy b) Algorithms c) Heuristics ALGORITHMS: formulas or procedures. If applied correctly, algorithms will always work. *balance checkbook, figure gas mileage, calculate gradepoint average. HEURISTICS: simple, basic rules or “rule of thumb”. (i.e.) “feed a cold, starve a fever” Heuristics do not guarantee a solution, but they give us a good start. Useful heuristics include: a) Working backward b) Searching for analogies. (if the new problem is similar to the one you’ve faced previously) c) Breaking a big problem into smaller pieces Obstacles to problem-solving include: a) Mental set b) Functional fixedness c) Self-imposed limitations Say this word 3 times. SILK OTHER OBSTACLES: a) Lack of specific knowledge b) Lack of interest c) Low self-esteem d) Fatigue e) Drugs (even legal drugs) f) Stress g) Bias What do cows drink? Did you say milk? They actually drink water. . . . But this is an example of mental set. BIAS a) Confirmation bias: finding fault with information that doesn’t confirm your belief. b) Hindsight bias: people overestimate their ability to have predicted an event c) Anchoring bias: faulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on a completely unrelated quantity. 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8=? 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1=? When these equations are given to 2 separate groups of people to ESTIMATE, the average answer for #1 was 512, and #2 was 2250. d) Representativeness bias: faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category. e) Availability bias: faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on information that can be recalled from personal experience. Marzano outlined 9 strategies most likely to improve student achievement: 1. Identifying similarities and differences 2. Summarizing and note taking 3. Reinforcing effort and providing recognition 4. Homework and practice 5. Nonlinguistic representations 6. Cooperative learning 7. Setting objectives and providing feedback 8. Generating and testing hypotheses 9. Cues, questions, and advance organizers Following the 1948 Convention of the American Psychological Association, B S Bloom took a lead in formulating a classification of "the goals of the educational process". Three "domains" of educational activities were identified. • Cognitive Domain • Affective Domain • Psychomotor Domain Bloom and his co-workers established a hierarchy of educational objectives, (Bloom's Taxonomy), which divide cognitive objectives into subdivisions ranging from the simplest behaviour to the most complex. BLOOM’s TAXONOMY High school students are rarely asked higher level questions: Level 1: Level 2: Level 3: Level 4: Level 5: Level 6: Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation