Download Preview the Subject Index

Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-1
Subject Index
Notes: Index entries that refer to often-looked-up topics in psychology are boldfaced to make them easier to find.
Page numbers preceded by A refer to the Statistical Appendix.
A
Abnormal psychology, defined, 17. See also
Clinical psychology; Mental disorders
Absolute threshold in sensation, 262
Action potentials in neurons, 140–143,
propagation of, 141–143
Adaptation(s)
defined, 52
personality traits as, 560–570
in sensory processes, 235
in vision, 272–273
Adaptive functions. See Functional/
evolutionary explanations;
Functionalism; Natural selection
Addiction. See Drug addiction
ADHD (attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder), 600–601
Adler’s psychodynamic theory, 572
Adolescence
cultural influences on duration of, 456–457
defined, 456
formal operational schemes and, 407–408
moral development in, 461–463
neural pruning in, 630
recklessness and delinquency in, 459–461
relationships with parents in, 457–458
relationships with peers in, 458
segregation from adults in, 459–460
sexual explorations in, 463–467
social development in, 456–466
young-male syndrome in, 460–461
Adrenal glands, 177–180
Adrenal androgens, 205–206
Affect, as component of emotion, 220
Aggression. See also Anger; Intergroup conflict
in adolescence, 459–461
in chimpanzees, 85
as context-specific personality trait, 582
cultural influence on, 451
Freudian view of, 571–572
between groups, 539–540
mating patterns and, 85
playful, 77, 121, 451
in obedience, 528–532
sex differences in, 84–86
testosterone and, 203
Aging
approaching death and, 472
effect on
bitter taste, 245
fluid vs. crystallized intelligence, 380–381
hearing, 258
memory, 346–347, 471
mental speed, 413–414
olfactory sensitivity, 238
personality, 557–558
sleep, 215
happiness and, 471
personality stability and, 557
socioemotional selectivity theory of, 471
Agnosia, 295–296
Agoraphobia, 611
Agreeableness–antagonism
behavioral correlates of, 556
as Big Five trait dimension, 554
change in with age, 557–558
gender difference in, 557, 567
Alleles, 56–57
Altruism. See also Cooperation
vs. cooperation, 87
evolutionary explanation of, 87–88
kin-selection theory of, 87–88
punishment of cheaters as, 537–538
reciprocity theory of, 88
Alzheimer’s disease, 602–603
Amnesia
anterograde, 332
in case of H. M., 330–331, 345
developmental, 346
after electroconvulsive therapy, 648
retrograde, 332
temporal lobe, 330–331, 345–346
Amygdala, 158
role in emotions, 227–228
Analogies
in cross-species comparisons, 75,78
as foundations for reasoning, 352–355
Anorexia nervosa, 597
culture and, 599
Anger. See also, Aggression
contagiousness of, 542
decline of in old age, 471
facial expression of, 71, 482
functions of, 222
intermittent explosive disorder and, 604
loss of control and, 399
in response to being cheated, 538
sex differences in, 453, 568, 604
Anxiety. See also Anxiety disorders; Fear
basic, in Horney’s theory, 572
choking under pressure and, 513–515
cultural influence on, 607–608
defenses against, 572–576
depression and, 613–614, 617
due to evaluation, 513
vs. fear, 220, 606
infant attachment and, 438
locus of control and, 582
psychodynamic views of, 572–576
Anxiety disorders, 606–612. See also
Generalized anxiety disorder;
Obsessive-compulsive disorder; Panic
disorder; Posttraumatic stress disorder
gender differences in, 604
genetic predisposition and, 607, 612
stress and, 607, 611–612
Aphasia, Broca’s and Wernicke’s, 169–171
Appetite. See Hunger and eating
Arcuate nucleus, 197
Artificial selection, 63–64
Asperger’s syndrome, 418
Assertive community treatment, 641
Associations, mental
as bases for stereotypes, 495–496
classical conditioning of, 100–101
empiricist philosophy of, 6
implicit associations tests of, 495–496
law of contiguity and,6, 335
law of similarity and, 335
as memory retrieval cues, 335–337
psychoanalytic use of, 652–653
spreading-activation model of, 336
Attachment
adult, 467. See also Romantic love
infant, 436–441
day care and, 441
evolutionary functions of, 437–438
genetic effect on, 440
to inanimate objects, 442
Harlow’s study of, in monkeys, 436–437
quality of care and, 439–440
role of smell in, 240
social adjustment and, 439
strange-situation test for, 438
varieties of, 438
Attention. See also Consciousness; Memory;
working
automatic processing and, 318–319
brain mechanisms of, 319–320
defined, 312
functional value of, 313
gaze following and, 127, 400
model of, 314
neuroimaging studies of, 319
to novelty, by infants, 398, 401–402
practice and, 317
preattentive processing and, 314, 316–321
in schizophrenia, 628–629
selective listening and, 314, 318
selective viewing and, 314–315
sensory memory and, 316
shifting of, 316, 320
social cues guiding, in infants, 400
Stroop interference effect and, 319
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
See ADHD
Attitude(s)
elaboration likelihood model of, 503–504
groupthink effect on, 523–524
as guides to behavior, 499–501
implicit vs. explicit, 499, 509
SI-1
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-2
SI-2 ❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙
Attitude(s) (continued)
origin of through
classical conditioning, 501–503
cognitive dissonance resolution, 504–508
See also Cognitive dissonance
heuristics, 503
logical analysis, 503–504
polarization of, 522–523
as rationalizations, 504–508
Attributions. See Person perception
Audition. See Hearing
Autism, 417–418, 602
communication in, 44–45
Autonomic nervous system, 153–154, 153
parasympathetic division of, 154
sympathetic division of, 153
Awareness. See Consciousness
Axon, defined, 140
Axon terminal, defined, 140
B
Basal ganglia
movement control by, 156–157, 160, 163
obsessive-compulsive disorder and,
610, 649
reward mechanisms in, 191–192
Bees, hive building by, 76
Behavior, definition of, 1
Behavior therapy, 664–668
contingency management in, 665
exposure treatment of phobias in, 666–668
token economies in, 665
Behavioral genetics, definition of, 12
Behavioral neuroscience, definition of, 11
Behaviorism. See also Behavior therapy;
Classical conditioning; Operant
conditioning
definition of, 99
perspective on learning, 134
Bias in research, 41–46
in choice of samples, 42
vs. error, 41–42
in measurement, 43
from observer and subject expectancies,
43–46
Big Five trait dimensions, 554–558, 562–563
Biological preparedness, 73–74
for language, 72–74, 426–428
phobias and, 609
specialized learning abilities and, 128–134
for walking, 72–74
Bipolar disorder, 618–619. See also Depression
I vs. II, 618
genetic predisposition for, 618
hypomania in, and creativity, 618–619
mania in, 618
Blind observation method, 45–46
Blindness
emotional expressions in, 72
psychogenic, 621–622
red-green color, 279
restructuring of the brain and, 174
Blocking effect, 103
Blood-brain barrier, 180
Bonding. See Attachment
Bonobos
female dominance in, 86
language learning in, 430–432
mating patterns in, 81–82
relationship to humans, 51, 82
Brain. See also Brain damage; Nervous
system; Neural mechanisms;
Neuroimaging
growth of from experience, 172–174
major parts of. See also index entry for each part
amygdala, 158
basal ganglia, 156–157
brainstem, 155
cerebellum, 156–157
cerebral cortex, 159–171
corpus callosum, 165–169
hippocampus, 159
hypothalamus, 158
limbic system, 158
medulla, 155
midbrain, 156, 155
pons, 155
thalamus, 155, 156
methods for study of, 146–151
nuclei in, 146
tracts in, 146
Brain damage
effects on
emotions, 226, 227
language, 165–170
memory, 330–331, 345–346
motivation, 190
movement control, 157, 160–161
pain experience, 248
sexual drive, 204
sleep, 218
spatial ability, 166–167
visual control of movement, 297
visual object and form perception,
296–298
visual working memory, 324
mental disorders due to, 602–603
recovery of functions after, 173
obsessive-compulsive disorder due to, 610
split-brain syndrome, 165
Bulimia nervosa, 599
C
Care of the severely disturbed, 639–641
assertive community treatment, 641
deinstitutionalization, 640–641
moral treatment movement, 640
Catatonic behavior, 627
Cattell’s 16-factor personality theory,
552–553
Cerebellum, 156–157, 160, 163
Cerebral cortex
association areas of, 159, 160, 162–163
functions of left and right hemispheres,
165–172, 228
lobes of, 159
prefrontal area. See Prefrontal cortex
premotor area, 161–163
primary auditory area, 159, 259–260
primary motor area, 159, 169
primary sensory areas of, 159, 233
primary somatosensory area, 159, 173
primary visual area, 159, 283–284
restructured in skill development, 173–174
structure and functions of, 159–172
topographic organization in, 160, 161
“what” and “where-and-how” visual
pathways in, 296–297
Children. See also Adolescence; Cognitive
development; Infants; Language
development; Social development
ADHD in, 600–601
conception of mind in, 414–417
conversion disorder in, 622
empathy in, 445–446
exploration by, 405–406
gender identity in, 454
gender segregation by, 454–455
generosity in, 445
intergroup conflict in, 539–541
memory in, 340–341, 412–414
morality in, 434–449
operational thinking in, 406–407
parental discipline styles and, 33–34,
447–449
personality diversity in, 561
play of, 122, 416–417, 450–452, 455–456.
See also Play
Pygmalion effects in, 484–485
self-perception in, 483, 484–485, 487
self-recognition by, 483
sleeping arrangements for, 441–442
taste sensitivity in, 245
Chimpanzees
aggression in, 85
Goodall’s studies of, 34
helping behavior in, 87
language learning in, 430–432
mating patterns in, 81–82
observational learning in, 125–126
relationship to humans, 51, 82
two types of smiles in, 77
Chromosomes, 55–56
and sex differences, 54, 205, 207
Circadian rhythms, 217–218
Classical conditioning
in advertisements, 104, 502
of attitudes, 501–503
basic procedure of, 95–96
behaviorism and, 99
cognitive explanations of, 101–103
conditions that promote it, 101–103
discrimination training in, 97
of drug reactions, 105–107
extinction in, 97, 666
of fears and phobias, 103–104, 609
vs. food-aversion learning, 128–129
generality of, 95–96
generalization in, 97–98
of hunger, 104–105, 199
as learned expectancy, 101–102
in overcoming stereotypes, 498
Pavlov’s discovery of, 94–95
as reflex learning, 94
of sexual arousal, 105
spontaneous recovery in, 97
S-S vs. S-R theory of, 99–101
Clever Hans, 27–30
Clinical psychologist, defined, 642
Clinical psychology, defined, 639. See also
Treatment of mental disorders
Cognition. See also Attention; Cognitive
development; Cognitive dissonance;
Consciousness; Memory; Reasoning;
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-3
❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙ SI-3
Unconscious Mind in anxiety vs.
depression, 613–614
defined, 13, 101
information-processing approach to,
310–313, 411–414
role in
classical conditioning, 101–103
emotion, 224, 662
learning, 135
operant conditioning, 117–119
pain, 248
style of, and depression, 614–615
Cognitive development, 398–418. See also
Language development; Social
development
of cause-effect reasoning, 405–407, 409
of deductive reasoning, 417
exploration and, 398–403, 405–406
of false-belief understanding, 415–418
information-processing perspective on,
411–414
of long-term memory, 411–413
of mental speed, 413–414
Piaget’s theory of, 405–408
assimilation and accommodation in,
404–405
concrete-operational stage in, 406
criticism of, 408
formal-operational stage in, 407–408
object permanence in, 402
operations in, 406
preoperational stage in, 406
schemes in, 404, 406–407
sensorimotor stage in, 406
play as promoter of, 416–417
social supports for, 409–411, 433
of understanding of minds, 414–419
Vygotsky’s theory of, 408–411, 452–543
vs Piaget’s theory, 409
role of dialogue and collaboration in, 410
role of language in, 409–410
zone of proximal development in, 410
of working memory, 413–414
Cognitive dissonance, 505–508
attitude change and, 504–508
avoiding dissonant information and, 505
as force for compliance, 525–526
insufficient-justification effect and, 506–508
theory of, 504–509
Cognitive model or theory of
attention, 314
classical conditioning, 101–103
depression, 614–615
mind and memory, 310–312, 348
memory types, 343
operant conditioning, 117–119
semantic networks, 335–336
sexual jealousy, 14
visual perception, 284–285
Cognitive psychology, defined, 14
Cognitive therapy, 660–664
Beck’s, 661, 663–664
Ellis’s rational-emotive, 661–662
Color mixing. See Vision.
Competition. See also Cooperation; Intergroup
conflict; Social dilemmas
and testosterone, 203
Compliance See also Obedience; Persuasion
promoted by
cognitive dissonance, 525–526
low-ball technique, 525
foot-in-the-door technique, 525–526
reciprocity norm, 526–527
shared identity, 528
to sales pressure, 525–528
Concepts, mental. See also Mental images
empiricist philosophy and, 6–7
perceived similarities ass basis for, 352
priming of, 317–318, 337
schemas and scripts as, 338
spreading activation model of, 336
stimulus generalization and, 117–118
Conditioned response, 95. See also Classical
conditioning
Conditioned stimulus, 95. See also Classical
conditioning
predictive value of, 101–103
Conditioning. See Classical conditioning;
Operant conditioning
Conformity
Asch’s experiments on, 517–519
in attitudes, 520–521, 523–524
“broken windows” theory of crime and,
519–520
bystanders’ failure to help and, 521–522
in group discussions, 522–524
informational vs. normative influence and,
517, 518–519, 521–522, 547
locus of control and, 582
nonconformists’ effects on, 519
to norm(s), 519–522
of fairness, 537–538
of obedience, 530
in public-service messages, 520–521
of reciprocity, 526–528
to peers, in adolescence, 458–459
Conscientiousness–undirectedness
behavioral correlates of, 556
as Big Five trait dimension, 554
change in with age, 557
gender difference in, 557, 567
Consciousness. See also Attention; Memory,
working; Unconscious mind
defined, 309
of emotional experiences, 227–228
explicit attitudes and, 499
explicit memory as, 342–344
explicit stereotypes and, 495, 498
left-hemisphere interpreter and, 168
of self, 483–484
self-conscious emotions and, 543–546
vs. unconsciousness, in vision, 297–298
as working memory, 311–312, 320–324
Contingency management therapy, 665
Conversion disorder, 621–622
Cooperation. See also Altruism; Intergroup
conflict
accountability and, 537
evolutionary explanation of, 86–87, 533
fairness norm and, 537–538
group size effect on, 536
punishment of cheaters and, 537–538
reciprocity norm and, 526–527
reciprocity theory of altruism and, 88
reputation and, 537
in prisoner’s dilemma games, 534–537
in public-goods games, 536–537
social dilemmas and, 533–539
social identity and, 538–539
superordinate goals and, 540
tit-for-tat strategy in, 535–537
tragedy of the commons allegory and, 533
Corpus callosum, 165
effect of cutting, 165–169
Correlation coefficient, 34, 38, A7
positive vs. negative 38–39
and strength of correlation, 38–39
Correlational research, 33–34
Cortex. See Cerebral cortex
Creativity
hypomania and, 619–620
play and, 366
positive emotions and, 366
problem solving and, 362–366
self-actualization and, 579
Critical period
for differentiating effects of hormones, 205
for imprinting, 133
Cultural influences on
ADHD diagnosis, 600–601
adolescence, duration of, 456–457
adolescent sexual behavior, 463–464, 465
aggression in children, 450–451
assertiveness in women, 568–569
attractiveness bias, 480
attributions to personality vs. situation,
478–479
body weight, 199–200
care of infants, 441–443
care of mentally disordered, 640
collectivism vs. individualism, 588–589
concept of personality, 589
conformity, 518
contextual vs. analytical reasoning, 368–369
conversion disorder, 621–622
depression, 620
domestic violence, 90
eating disorders, 599
emotional expressions, 72
eyebrow flash, 71–72
gender differences in personality, 568–569
generalized anxiety, 607–608
holistic vs. analytic perception, 368–369
homosexuality, view of, 600
independent vs. interdependent view of
self, 490, 588–589
infants’ exploration and learning, 399–400
infants’ sharing, encouragement of 445
infants’ sleeping arrangements, 441–442
Internet addiction, 599
IQ scores, 389–393
language-acquisition support system, 429–430
mathematical reasoning, 372–373
mental disorder syndromes, 598–599
parenting, 441–443
peer pressure in adolescence, 458
personality, 587–589
play by children, 122, 450–451
post-traumatic stress disorder prevalence,
611–612
pubertal timing, 457–458
reasoning, 367–374, 394
responses to logic questions, 367–368
schizophrenia, 633–634
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
4:25 AM
Page SI-4
SI-4 ❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙
Cultural influences on (continued)
self-enhancement vs. self-effacement, 491
sexual behavior, 201, 464, 465.
sexual jealousy, 15
social vs. personal identity, 493
somatization disorder, 620
spatial perception and reasoning, 370–372
sports participation by girls, 569
taijin kyofusho, 599–600
Cultural psychology, definition of, 15
Culture-bound syndromes, 589–590
Curiosity. See Exploration
D
Deep brain stimulation, 649
Defense mechanism(s), 572–576
Anna Freud’s theory of, 572
defensive optimism, 586
displacement, 573
mature vs. immature, 575–576
projection, 573
rationalization, 573
reaction formation, 573
repression, 573, 574–575
sublimation, 573
suppression, 576
Delusions, 627
Dendrites, defined, 140
Dependent variable, defined, 31
Depression, 613–617
brain mechanisms of, 616–617
cognitive basis for, 614–615
cognitive therapy for, 615, 663–664
cultural variation in, 620
drug therapy for, 616, 645–647
electroconvulsive therapy for, 647–648
evolutionary bases for, 617–618
gender differences in, 604–605
genetic predisposition for, 615–616
vs. generalized anxiety, 613–614
hopelessness theory of, 614–615
major vs. dysthymia, 613
seasonal affective disorder as, 617
somatization disorder as, 621
stress and, 615–616
Descriptive statistics, 37–39
Descriptive study, defined, 34
Deterministic fallacy, 89–90
Development. See Cognitive development;
Language development; Social
development
Developmental psychology, defined 16, 397
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, 594–596
Difference threshold, 262–263
Discrimination training
in classical conditioning, 97
in operant conditioning, 115–116
Disgust, expression of, 222
DNA, 52–56
mutations in, 64
testing for paternity, 81, 84
Double-blind experiment, 46
Down syndrome, 418, 602
Dreams. See also Sleep
psychoanalytic analysis of, 215, 653
relation of, to REM sleep, 211, 214–215
theories of functions of, 214–215
Drive. See Motivation
Drug addiction
classical conditioning and, 106–107
neural mechanisms of, 194
substance-use disorders, 596, 604
Drug therapies, 643–647
for anxiety, 645
for depression, 181, 616–617, 645–646
for schizophrenia, 181, 629, 634, 644–645
lithium for bipolar disorder, 618
placebo effects and, 646–647. See also Placebos
Drugs. See also Drug addiction; Drug therapies
amphetamine, 194
blood-brain barrier to, 180
cocaine, 194
compensatory reactions to, 105
conditioning of reactions to, 105–107
defined, 180
hallucinogenic, 182
morphine, 250
opiates, 182, 250
psychoactive, categories of 181–182
routes into bloodstream, 180
stimulants, 182
synaptic actions of, 180–181, 646
tolerance to, 105
withdrawal symptoms from, 107
DSM–IV. See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders
Dualism, philosophy of, 3–4
E
Eating. See Hunger and eating
Eating disorders. See Anoerxia nervosa;
Bulimia nervosa
EEG. See Electroencephalogram
Electrical stimulation of the brain
to map functions, 150
to study reward mechanisms, 191
as therapy, 649
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), 647–648
Electroencephalogram (EEG), 148, 209–210, 229
Electromagnetic spectrum, 275
Embarrassment, 544–545
Emotion(s). See also Anger; Embarrassment;
Empathy; Fear; Guilt; Happiness; Mood;
Pride; Romantic love; Shame
adaptive functions of, 223
affect as component of, 220
in attitudes, 499
bodily responses in, 223–227
brain mechanisms of, 226–228
broaden-and-build theory of, 366
classification of, 221
common-sense theory of, 223
conscious experience of, 227–228
contagiousness of, 542–543
Darwin’s explanation of, 9
defined, 220
Ellis’s cognitive theory of, 661–662
expressed, and schizophrenia, 633–634
expressions of, 71–72, 76–77, 222, 224–225
facial feedback and, 224–226
James’s theory of, 223–224
vs. mood, 220
negative, health effects of, 623–625
pain as, 248
primary, model of, 221–222
repression of, 574–575
Schachter’s theory of, 223, 224
about self, 543–546
social pain as, 542
social pressure mediated by, 541–546
Empathy
development of, 415, 445–446
emotional contagion and, 542–543
guilt and, 447
in psychotherapy, 657, 670–671
Empiricist philosophy, 6, 401
Employment
adult development and, 468–470
enjoyment of, by genders 469–470
self-direction in
intelligence affected by, 389
personality affected by, 389, 469
satisfaction and, 469
success in and IQ, 378
Endocrine glands, 177
Endorphins
as neurotransmitters, 146
in pain reduction, 250–251
in reward and learning, 193–194
Enriched environment and brain growth,
172–173
Environment, defined, 53
Ethics in psychological research, 46–48
Milgram’s obedience studies and, 522
Evolution. See Natural selection
Evolutionary explanations. See also
Functional/evolutionary explanations
limitations of 68–70, 88–90
Evolutionary psychology, definition of, 13
Expectancy effects. See Observer-expectancy
effects; Subject-expectancy effects
Expectancy theory of
classical conditioning, 101–103
operant conditioning, 117–119
Experiment, defined, 31
between-groups type, 31–32
within-subject type, 31–32
Exploration. See also Observational learning
by animals, 122–124
by children, 405–406
by infants, 398–403
attachment and, 437–438
cultural influences on, 399–400
examining, 399–400
social cues used in, 400, 438
latent learning in, 124
vs. play, 122
self-actualization and, 579
sexual, 463–466
Extinction
in classical conditioning, 97, 666
in operant conditioning, 112–113
Extraversion–introversion
behavioral correlates of, 555
as Big Five trait dimension, 554
change in with age, 557
gender difference in, 557, 567
Eyebrow flash, 71–72
F
Facilitated communication, 44–45
Fact, distinguished from theory and
hypothesis, 29
Factor analysis, 551
of intelligence test scores, 379–380
of personality inventory scores, 551–552
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-5
❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙ SI-5
Fear. See also Anxiety; Anxiety disorders
adaptive functions of, 222, 606
of abandonment, in infants, 437
vs. anxiety, 220, 606–607
contagiousness of, 542
classical conditioning of, 103–104
exposure treatment of, 666–668
facial expression of, 71, 222, 482
genetic effects on, in dogs, 58–59
gender differences in, 608
hormonal response in, 179–180
panic and, 611
of sleeping alone, in infants, 441–442
specialized learning abilities for, 131–132
Fechner’s psychophysical law, 263–264, A9
Feeding behavior. See Hunger and eating
Field study vs. laboratory study, 35
Five-factor model of personality. See
Personality traits.
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance
imaging). See Neuroimaging of brain
Forgetting. See Amnesia; Memory
Frequency distribution, defined, A2–A3
Freud, Sigmund. See Psychodynamic personality
theory; Psychodynamic therapy
Functional/evolutionary explanation(s) of
altruism, 87–88
attachment in infancy, 437–438
attention, 313
attitudes, 508
baby-face bias, 481–482
beak thickness in finches, 65–66
birdsong, 67
bold–cautious dimension in fish, 561–562
color vision, 279
cooperation, 86–87, 533
depression, 617–618
drives, classes of, 189–190
emotional contagion, 542–543
emotions, 222
exploration, 122–124
eyebrow flash, 71–72
facial expression of anger, 482
facial expressions of fear, 222, 482
facial expressions of disgust, 222
father absence effect on promiscuity,
465–466
fears and phobias, 222, 607, 609
gender differences in personality, 468
gender identity in children, 454
general intelligence, 383–384
genetic diversity of offspring, 56, 561
hive-building in bees, 76
homologies and analogies in behavior,
774–48
hunger and satiety mechanisms, 196
immune suppression by stress, 624–625
mating patterns, 78–82, 83–84
mental disorders, 636
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 578–579
nepotism, 87–88
pain, 246
personality differences, 561–563
play, 120–122
positive emotions, 366
predictable-world bias, 357–358
psychophysical power law, 265–266
romantic love, 83–84
self-conscious emotions, 544–546
self-esteem, 488
sensory systems, 231, 267
sex difference in aggression, 84–86
sex difference in facial features, 481–482
sex difference in sexual eagerness, 464
sexual jealousy, 13, 83–84
sleep and dreams, 212–215
smiling, two kinds of, 76–77
social pain, 542
social and personal identity, 492, 538–539
specialized learning abilities, 128–134
taste qualities & sensitivity, 244–245
unconscious motivation, 90–91
vision and the eye, 269–270, 306
Functionalism, 67–70. See also Functional/
evolutionary explanation(s) of
limitations of, 68–70, 88–90
G
Gambling
compulsive, neural mechanisms of, 195–196
predictable-world bias and, 357–358
schedule of reinforcement in, 113
Gaze following, 127, 400
Gender
identity in children, 454
self-segregation in children, 454–455
vs. sex, 453, 554
as social niche, 566–569
Gender differences in. See also Sex differences
aggression, 84–86, 459–461
anxiety disorders, 604
antisocial personality disorder, 604
children’s play, 455–456
compliance to requests, 453
consequences of shyness 567
diagnoses, from clinician’s biases, 606
depression, 604
fears and phobias, 608
math ability stereotypes, 503–504
personality traits, 567–569
recklessness, 459–461
reporting of distress, 604–605
responses to stress, 568, 605–606, 623
sexual eagerness, 464
social development, 453–456
social roles and experiences, 605
stereotype threat vulnerability, 514–515
substance-use disorders, 604
treatment by caregivers, 453–454
type of work enjoyed, 470
Generalization
in classical conditioning, 97–98
in operant conditioning, 116–117
related to meaning and concepts, 98, 116–117
Generalized anxiety disorder, 607–608
cultural influence on, 607–608
vs. depression, 613–614
drug therapy for, 645
worry and hypervigilance in, 607
Genes See also Heritability
activation of, 53–54
alleles of, 56
diversity of, in offspring, 55–56
dominant vs. recessive, 56–57
homozygous vs. heterozygous condition
of, 56
how they affect behavior, 52–54, 60, 90
interaction of, with environment, 53,53
Mendelian heredity and, 57–60
natural selection and, 64
mutations of, 64
polygenic inheritance and, 60–63
regulatory vs. coding
selective breeding and, 61–62
role of in
anxiety disorders, 607, 612
attachment in infancy, 440
compulsive gambling, 196
depression, 615–616
Down syndrome, 602
fearfulness in dogs, 58–59
intelligence, 384–389
maze learning in rats, 61–63
mental disorders, 603
personality traits, 558–560
red-green color blindness, 279
schizophrenia, 630–631
sexual orientation, 206–207
specific language impairment, 59–60
Genetic drift, 69
Genotype vs. phenotype, 54
Gestalt psychology, 286–288
Grasp reflex in infants, 68
Group polarization, 522–523
Groupthink, 523–524
Guilt, 544
function of, 68, 544
in moral development, 447
in post-traumatic stress disorder, 611
vs. shame, 544
H
Habituation
in exposure treatment of phobias, 666
in infants’ selective looking, 398, 401
in test of S–S theory of conditioning,
100–101
as type of learning, 94
Hallucinations, 627
Happiness
broaden-and-build theory of, 366
control of environment and, 399
employment and, 469–470
facial expression of, 71–72, 77, 225
facial feedback and, 225–226
marital, 468
mature defensive style and, 576
in old age, 471–472
problem-solving aided by, 366
self-determination and, 469, 577–578
smile of, 77
Harlow’s study of attachment in monkeys,
436–437
Health/health psychology. See also Stress
adolescent recklessness and, 459–461
conversion disorder, 621–622
eating disorders and, 597, 599
effects on health or health care of
defensive optimism, 585–586
locus of control, 582
negative emotions, 623–625
optimism, 585
psychological distress, 623–625
repressive personality, 575
self-determination, 577–578
self-efficacy, 584
traumatic grief, 622–623
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-6
SI-6 ❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙
Health/health psychology (continued)
noise and hearing loss, 256
obesity, 196–200,
psychogenic blindness, 621–622
psychological factors affecting medical
condition, as DSM–IV category, 622
sex education and, 464
somatization disorder, 620–621
substance abuse and dependence, 106–107,
194, 596, 604
immune suppression by stress, 624–625
Hearing
age and loss of, 258
analysis of sound patterns by, 260
anatomy of, 253–255
auditory (echoic) sensory memory, 316
auditory working memory, 321–322
cochlear implant, 256, 258
conduction deafness, 255
functions of, 252
locating sounds, 259–260
neural mechanisms of, 253–260
phonemic restoration illusion, 260–261
pitch perception, 256–259
auditory masking and, 259
frequency and, 258
traveling wave and, 256–257
selective listening, 314, 318
sensorineural deafness, 255
sound amplitude and loudness, 252–253
sound frequency and pitch, 253
transduction in, 254–255
Helping, See Altruism; Cooperation
Heredity. See Genes; Heritability
Heritability. See also Genes
of anxiety disorders, 607
of bipolar disorder, 618
coefficient of, 385–386
defined, 385–386
of depression, 615–616
of intelligence, 387
limitation of concept of, 394
of personality, 558–559
of schizophrenia, 631
specific to the population studied, 390
twins used in study of, 386–387, 558–559
Hierarchical organization
of dominance, 85
as memory aid, 20–21, 329
of language, 420
of nervous system, 151, 163–164, 181
of textbooks, 20–21
of needs, Maslow’s, 578–579
Hippocampus, 158
memory and, 330–331, 345–346
schizophrenia and, 630
spatial learning and, 173, 174
Homeostasis, 187–188
Homologies in cross-species comparisons,
74–77
Homosexuality. See Sexual orientation
Hormone(s), 177–180
of adrenal gland, 179–180, 204
brain control of, 179–180
defined, 177
differentiating vs. activating effects of,
205–206
endocrine glands and, 177
epinephrine as, 217, 224
fear response and, 179, 180
how they affect behavior, 178
influences on hunger, 196–198
leptin, 198
PYY (peptide YY3–36), 197, 201
influences of, on sexuality, 202–206
activation of sex drive, 202–204
adrenal androgens, 204, 206
androgens, 204
estrogen, 203–204
estrous cycle, 203–204
menstrual cycle, 204–205
progesterone, 203
sexual differentiation of brain, 205–207
testosterone, 178, 202–206
oxytocin, 568
of pituitary gland, 179
in stress response, 179,180, 618
Horney’s psychodynamic theory, 572
Humanistic personality theories, 577–580
life story in, 579–580
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 578–579
origin of, in existentialist philosophy, 657
phenomenological reality in, 577, 579–580
Rogers’s self-theory, 577–578
self-actualization in, 578–579
self-determination in, 577–578
Humanistic therapy, 656–659
case example of, 658–659
empathy and positive regard in, 657–658
non-directive nature of, 657
Rogers’s person-centered, 657, 658–659
Hunger and eating. See also Obesity
classical conditioning of, 104–105
control of, by sensory stimuli, 198–199
dieting, 200–201
disorders of
anorexia nervosa, 597, 599
bulimia nervosa, 599
feedback control of, 196
hormonal control of, 196–198
neural control of, 196–199
sensory-specific satiety, 199
specialized learning abilities for, 128–131
Hypnosis
effect on memory, 339
Freud’s view of unconscious mind and, 571
in studies of conversion disorder, 622
Hypomania, 618–619
Hypothalamus, 158
control of hormones by, 179
as hub of central drive systems, 189–190
hunger and, 196–197
sex difference in, 205
sex drive and, 202–204
sleep and, 217–219
Hypothesis, defined, 29
I
Impression management, 515–516
Imprinting, as form of learning, 132–133
Independent variable, defined, 31
Individual differences, See Intelligence;
Personality
Industrial/organizational psychology
accountability, 537
advertising, 104, 501–503
aging and employment, 470–471
compliance and obedience, 525–532
cooperation and competition, 533–541
group decision making, 522–524
group polarization, 522–523
groupthink, 523–524
intelligence and employment, 379
intergroup conflict, 539–541
job satisfaction, 469–470
majority and minority influences, 517–519
occupational self-direction, 389, 469
overjustification effect, 119
persuasion, 501–506, 520–521
reward contrast effects, 118
sales techniques, 525–528
social dilemmas, 533–539
Infants
attachment to caregivers in, 436–441.
See also Attachment
care of
cultural differences in, 441–443
in day care, 441–443
in hunter-gatherer societies, 399–400,
442–443
indulgence in, 443
cognitive development in, 398–403. See also
Cognitive development
discrimination training in, 116
drive for control in, 398–399
empathy in, 415, 445–446
exploratory behavior of, 398–403, 437–438
knowledge of physical principles in, 400–403
language learning by, 408–413. See also
Language development
memory in, 398, 412
sensorimotor schemes and, 406
sleeping arrangements for, 441–442
social development of, 423–431. See also
Social development
social referencing by, 400, 438
Inferential statistics, 37, 39–41
Instincts, See Species-typical behaviors
Instrumental conditioning. See Operant
conditioning
Intelligence. See also Reasoning
as adaptation for novelty, 383–384
in animal behavior, 133–134
concept of, based on correlations, 394
cultural influences on, 389–393
defined, 375
family environment effect on, 388
fluid vs. crystallized, 379–381
age effect on, 381
general intelligence (g), 379
heritability of, 385–387, 390
intelligence quotient (IQ), 377
mental self-government and, 382–383
mental speed and, 381
nature-nurture debate about, 384
openness to experience and, 388–389
tests of
Binet’s, 375–376
Galton’s, 375
modern, 376–378
stereotype threat in, 514
validity of, 378
work environment effect on, 389
working memory and, 382
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-7
❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙ SI-7
Intergroup conflict
negative stereotyping and, 540
Robbers Cave study, 539–541
social identity and, 538–541
superordinate goals and, 540–541
within-group solidarity and, 539
Internet
addiction to, 599
as analogy to brain memory storage, 334
meeting people through, 482–483
Introversion. See Extraversion–introversion
J
Jealousy. See Sexual jealousy
K
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development,
461–463
L
Language
aphasia, Broca’s and Wernicke’s, 169–171
brain mechanisms of, 166–171
disorder of, role of genes, 59–60
grammar, 420–421
hierarchical structure of, 420
inner speech as verbal thought, 410
invention of, by children, 427–428
morphemes, 419
phonemes, 420, 421–422
phonemic restoration illusion, 260–261
phonological loop and, 321–322
role of, in memory development, 412–413
role of, in thought and reasoning, 369–374,
409–411
sexism in, 373–374
sign, 422–423, 427–428, 430–431
universal characteristics of, 419–421, 427
Language development
biological preparedness in, 74, 426–428
in chimpanzees and bonobos, 431–432
cooing and babbling in, 422–423
critical period for, 428
in deaf children, 422–423, 427–428
extending words to new referents in, 424–425
genetic factors in, 59–60
grammar acquisition in, 425–426, 427–429
language-acquisition device (LAD), 426–428
language-acquisition support system (LASS),
429–430
maternal speech and, 429–430
speech sound perception in, 421–422
stages of, 421–427
vocabulary development in, 423–424
Laughter
contagiousness of, 542
evolution of, 77
Law of effect, 108–109
Learning. See also Classical conditioning;
Cognitive development; Language
development; Memory; Operant
conditioning
via accommodation and assimilation, 404–405
of artificial grammars, 344
behavioral perspective on, 134
brain changes in, 172–177
cognitive perspective on, 134
definition of, 93
elaborative rehearsal in, 326–327
exploration as means of, 122–124, 398–403,
405–406
evolutionary perspective on, 128–134
by infants, 388–403
imprinting as, 132–133
of language, by apes, 430–432
latent, 124
observational, 124–127, 130
of place, by animals, 133
play as means of, 120–122, 450–452
roll of, in
attentional capacity, 317
birdsong dialects, 73
fears and phobias, 103–104, 131–132, 609
food aversions and preferences, 128–131
hunger, 104
species-typical behaviors, 72–74
development of walking, 73–74
development of language, 74, 429–433
overcoming stereotypes, 498
sexual arousal, 105
sexual jealousy, 13
selective breeding for in rats, 61–63
school learning
developmental amnesia and, 346
elaborative rehearsal and, 326–327
self-fulfilling prophesies in, 484–485
specialized abilities for, 128–134
without awareness, 111, 344–347
zone of proximal development and, 410–411
Learning psychology, definition of, 13
Levels of analysis in psychology, 10–16
Limbic system, 158. See also Amygdala;
Hippocampus
role in motivation and emotion, 158
role in pain, 248
role in smell, 237–238
role in social pain, 542
Linguistic relativity, 370–374
Lobotomy, 221, 648
Locus of control, 581–583
Long-term memory, See Memory, long term
Long-term potentiation (LTP), 174–176, 193
Love. See Attachment, Romantic love
M
Mania, 618
Marriage
success in, 468
universality of, 83
Maslow’s needs hierarchy, 578–579
Materialism, philosophy of, 4
Mating patterns in animals, 78–82
polygyny, polyandry, monogamy,
polygyndandry, 78–82
related to aggression, 85
related to parental investment, 78–82
Mating patterns in humans, 83–84
Mean, as measure of central tendency,
37, A3–A4
Median, as measure of central tendency,
37, A3–A4
Medial forebrain bundle, 191–192
Medulla, 155–156
Meiosis, 55–56
Memory. See also Amnesia; Attention; Learning
control processes in, 312–312
consolidation of long-term, 332–334
construction of long-term, 337–341
false memories in, 339–341
hypnosis and, 339
imagination and, 340
schemas and scripts and, 338
social pressure and, 341
source confusion and, 341
suggestion and, 339–341
cultural influence on, for scenes, 368–369
deficit in schizophrenia, 628–629
defined, 310
development of, in infants and children,
398, 411–414
encoding of long-term, 313, 325–334
brain mechanisms of, 330–332
chunking as aid in, 327–328
elaboration as method of, 325–327,
336–337
encoding vs. rote rehearsal in, 325
hierarchical organization as aid in,
20–21, 329
in school learning, 326–327
visualization as aid in, 330
episodic, 343–344, 346–347, 411–415
expert, 328
explicit, 343–344, 346–347, 411–412
brain mechanisms of, 345–347
eyewitness, 339–340
implicit, 342–346, 412
long-term, defined, 312. See also encoding,
retrieval
long-term working, 328
modal model of, 310–313, 348
incompleteness of, 317, 342
in old age 346, 471
procedural, 344
retrieval of long-term, 313, 334–341. See also
construction of long-term memories
context and, 334
cues for, 334–337
elaborative rehearsal and, 336–337
mental associations and, 334–337
priming and, 317–318, 336, 344
spreading-activation model of, 336
semantic, 343–344, 346–347, 412
sensory, 311
auditory (echoic), 316
phonemic restoration and, 260–261
visual (iconic), 316
short-term. See working memory
span of short-term, 321
in IQ tests, 382
stores of, in modal model, 310–312
working, 311–312, 320–325
brain mechanisms of, 324
central executive, 321, 382
deductive reasoning and, 363
development of, 413–414
dual task performance in, 322–324
intelligence and, 382
interference with, in choking under
pressure, 513–515
phonological loop, 321–322
as seat of consciousness, 311–312
span of, 321
visuospatial sketchpad, 322
Mendelian heredity, 57–60
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-8
SI-8 ❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙
Menstrual cycle, 204–206
Mental disorder(s). See also Anxiety disorders; Mood disorders; Schizophrenia;
Somatoform disorders
categorization of, 595–597
cause(s) of, 602–606, 636
brain damage as, 602–603
genes as, 603–604
predisposing vs. precipitating vs.
perpetuating, 603–604
stress as, 603–604
evolutionary perspective on, 636
episodic vs. chronic, 603
gender differences in, 603–606 See also
Gender differences
culture-bound syndromes in, 598–601
cultural values and, 600–601
dangers in labeling, 597–598
defined, 594–595
diagnosis of, 595–598
reliability in, 595–596
validity in, 597
DSM–IV categories of, 596. See also
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders
medical students’ disease and, 598
syndrome vs. symptom in, 594
Mental health system,
places of treatment, 642–643
professionals in, 642
Mental images
in memory encoding, 330
in solving syllogisms, 363
visual nature of, 322
Midbrain, 155–156
Milgram’s experiments on obedience, 528–532
Mind. See also Cognitive models; Concepts
mental; Consciousness; Memory;
Mental images; Unconscious mind
defined, 1, 23
children’s understanding of, 402–405
modal model of, 310–313
as product of brain, 348
Mirror neurons, 125–126, 148
Mitosis, 55
Mode, in frequency distribution, A3
Models of mind. See Cognitive models
Monogamy, 78–79, 81, 83
Mood, definition of, 220, 613
Mood disorders, 613–619. See also Bipolar
disorder; Depression
Moral development
in adolescence, 461–463
in childhood, 447–449
empathy in, 445–446
guilt and, 447
Kohlberg’s stages of, 461–463
parental discipline styles and, 447–449
play as promoter of, 451–452
self-image and, 462–463
Moral treatment movement, 640
Motivation. See also Emotion; Hunger;
Reward; Sexual drive; Social pressure
aesthetic drives, 188–189
audience effect on, 512
central state theory of, 189–190
classification of drives, 188–189
cognitive consistency as, 504–508
as common factor in psychotherapy, 671–672
to control the environment, 398–399
Freud’s theory of, 571–572
homeostasis in, 187–188
incentives and, 186
Mazlow’s needs hierarchy of, 578–579
pain as, 246, 248
principles of, 186–190
regulatory vs. non-regulatory drives, 187–188
self-determination and, 577–578
shift of, in old age, 471
sleep drive, 208. See also Sleep
social drives, defined, 188
humanistic theory of, 578–579
psychodynamic theories of, 572
states of, 186
unconscious, 90–91, 571–572
Mutations, 64–65
Myelin sheath, 140, 143
N
Nativist philosophy, 7, 401
Natural selection. See also Functional/
evolutionary explanations
as basis for functionalism, 8, 67–70
defined, 63–64
environmental change and, 65–66
genetic diversity as fodder for, 64–65
as integrative theme in psychology, 91
species-typical behaviors and, 70–78
vs. artificial selection, 64
Naturalistic fallacy, 89
Naturalistic observations vs. tests, 36
Nerves, 138
cranial vs. spinal, 152, 155
motor neurons in, 152–153
sensory neurons in, 152
Nerve cells. See Neurons
Nervous system. See also Brain; Nerves; Neural
mechanisms of; Neuroimaging; Neurons;
Spinal Cord
central vs. peripheral, 138
drug effects on, 180–182
functional organization of, 151–164
hierarchical organization of, 151–152,
163–164, 181
hormonal effects on, 177–180
skeletal vs. autonomic, 153
sympathetic vs. parasympathetic portion
of autonomic, 153
Neural mechanisms of
ADHD, 600
Alzheimer’s disease, 602–603
attention, 319–320
compulsive gambling, 194–195
conversion disorder, 622
depression, 616–617
dreams, 212
drug addiction, 194
emotion, 226–228
explicit memory, 345–347
hearing, 253–260
hormone release, 179–180
hunger and satiety, 196–199
implicit memory, 345–346
language, 166–171
learning, 172–176
long-term memory encoding, 330–332
motivation, general, 189–190
movement control, 152–153, 154–157, 160–164
obsessive-compulsive disorder, 610
pain, 246–250
reflexes, 154–156
reward, 190–195
schizophrenia, 629–630
sensory processes, general, 332–334
sexual drive, 202–204
sexual orientation, 205–206
sleep, 217–219
smell, 236–238
social pain, 542
spatial ability, 164
taste, 243–244
vision, 271–274, 281–284, 295–298
working memory, 324
Neurasthenia, 620
Neurohormones, 178–180
Neuroimaging of brain
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance
imaging), 149
PET (positron emission photography), 149
in studies of
attention, 319
attitudes, 500
cheating, response to, 538
conversion disorders, 622
deductive reasoning, 362
emotion, 228
gambling, 195
generalized anxiety disorder, 607
language, 170–171
long-term memory, 331
movement control, 157
preattentive processing, 319
schizophrenia, 630
sleep, 212
social pain, 542
“vegetative” patients, 161–162
working memory, 324
Neurons
action potentials in, 140–143
defined, 138
electrical recording from, 150–151
enriched environment effects on, 172–173
generation of new, 173
interneurons, 139
motor, 139, 152–153, 155
parts of, 139–140
resting potential in, 141
sensory, 138–139, 152, 233
synaptic transmission in, 143–146
Neuroticism–stability
behavioral correlates of, 555
as Big Five trait dimension, 554
change in with age, 557
gender difference in, 557, 567
predisposition for mental disorders
and, 555
Neurotransmitter substances, 143
acetylcholine, 181
dopamine, 146
novelty seeking and, 559
Parkinson’s disease and, 181
in reward mechanism, 192–195
in schizophrenia, 629, 644
endorphins, 146. See also Endorphins
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), 144
in anxiety, 645
in sleep, 219
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-9
❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙ SI-9
glutamate, 144
in schizophrenia, 630
vs. hormones, 177–188
norepinephrine, 146
as adrenal hormone, 177–178
as neurotransmitter, 146
in depression, 616, 645
neuromodulators, 145–146
neuropeptide Y, 196
serotonin, 146
in depression, 616, 645–656
neuroticism and, 559
reuptake inhibitors, 645–646
in schizophrenia, 644
Normal distribution, 60–61, A2
of personality trait scores, 550
polygenic inheritance and, 60–61
of standardized IQ scores, 377
Norms. See Conformity
Nucleus accumbens, 191–194
Nucleus in CNS, defined, 146
O
Obedience, 528–532. See also Compliance
conditions that maximize, 530–531
crimes of, 528, 532
Milgram’s experiments on, 528–532
Obesity. See also Hunger and feeding behavior
BMI as measure of, 199
cultural influences on, 199–200
genetic influences on, 199–200
leptin effect on, 198
PYY effect on, 197
Object recognition, 292–298. See also Pattern
perception; Vision
recognition-by-components theory, 293–295
visual agnosias, 295, 296
“what” pathway’s role in, 296–298, 324
“where-and-how” pathway’s role in,
296–298, 324
Observational learning, 124–127, 130
Observational vs. self-report data-collection
methods, 35–36
Observer-expectancy effects, 30
as source of bias in research, 43–45
in diagnoses of mental disorders, 605
Obsessive-compulsive disorder, 609–610.
See also Anxiety disorders
deep brain stimulation treatment of, 649
drug treatment for, 645
psychosurgery for, 649
Old age. See Aging
Olfaction. See Smell
Openness to experience–non-openness
behavioral correlates of, 555
as Big Five trait dimension, 554
change in with age, 557
gender difference in, 557, 567
intelligence and, 38–389
Operant conditioning
cognitive explanations of, 117–119
conditioned reinforcement in, 110
contingency management therapy as, 665
discrimination training in, 115–116
extinction in, 112–113
fundamentals of, 107–114
generalization in, 116–117
law of effect and, 108–109
as means-end learning, 117–118
positive vs. negative punishment in, 114
positive vs. negative reinforcement in, 114
reward contrast effects in, 118
reinforcement in, 111–114
schedules of reinforcement in, 112–113
shaping by, 111–112
Skinner’s method of studying, 109–110
without awareness, 111
Operant response, defined, 108, 110
Optimism–pessimism, 585–586
adaptive vs. maladaptive forms, 585–586
health related to, 586–587
P
Pain
belief-induced analgesia and, 251
components of, 247–248
congenital insensitivity to, 246
endorphins and, 250
enhancement of, 249–250
evolutionary value of, 246
gate-control theory of, 248–249
as motivation, 246, 248
neural mechanisms of, 246–250
opiates and, 250
phantom limb, 248
placebo effect on, 251
reduction of (analgesia), 250–251
social, 542
stress-induced analgesia and, 250
as a somatosense, 246
two waves of, 247
Panic disorder, 611. See also Anxiety disorders
Parental investment, 78–83, 464
Parents/parenting
adolescents’ relationships with, 457–458
care of infants by, 439–443
contingency management training for, 665
cultural differences in, 441–443
differential treatment of boys and girls by,
453–454
disciplinary styles of, 33–44, 447–449
as models, in moral development, 463
identification with, 564–565
training of, 439–440, 449
Parkinson’s disease, 181, 195
Pattern generators, 155
Pattern perception, 282–291. See also Object
recognition; Vision
contour enhancement for, 282–283
figure and ground in, 288
feature-detector neurons and, 284, 291
feature-integration theory of, 284–286
Gestalt principles and, 286–287
illusory conjunctions in, 286
illusory contours on, 289
illusory lightness differences in, 290–291
lateral inhibition and, 282–283, 291
parallel and serial processing for, 284
pop-out phenomena in, 285–286
reversible figures in, 288
top-down vs. bottom-up processes in,
291, 306
Pavlovian conditioning. See Classical
conditioning
Percentile rank, A5–A6
Perception, See also Attention; Hearing; Object
recognition; Pattern perception; Person
perception; Self-perception; Vision
cultural influence on, 368–369
defined, 232
Person perception, 475–483, 494–498. See also
Impression management; Self-perception
attractiveness bias in, 479–480
attributions and, 476–479
cultural difference in, 478–479
fundamental attribution error in, 478
logic of, 477
person bias in, 477–478
baby-face bias in, 480–482
in Internet encounters, 482–483
self-fulfilling prophesies in, 484–485
stereotypes in, 494–498
explicit, 495, 498
implicit, 495–498
and intergroup conflict, 540
Personality, 549–590. See also Personality
trait(s)
advantages of diversity in, 561–563
attributions of. See Person perception
cultural differences in, 587–589
culture-specific concepts of, 589
defined, 549
disorders of, 596, 604–605
humanistic perspective on, 577–579. See also
Humanistic personality theories
as life story or personal myth, 579–580
occupational self-direction effect on, 389, 569
psychodynamic perspective on, 570–576. See
also Psychodynamic personality theories
social-cognitive perspective on, 580–590
traits in. See Personality traits
transformation in, 579–580
type A, 623
Personality psychology, defined 17
Personality trait(s), 550–560. See also
Neuroticism; Extraversion; Openness
to experience; Agreeableness;
Conscientiousness
belief in malleable self as, 584–585
boldness–caution as, in fish, 561–562
Cattell’s 16-factor theory of, 552–553
changes in, with age, 556–558
factor-analysis as basis for, 551–552
five-factor model of, 553–556
gender differences in, 567–569
cultural bases for, 568–569
evolutionary bases for, 568
heritability of, 558–559
locus of control as, 581–583, 585, 586
measurement of, 554–555
reliability of, 555
validity of, 555–556
normal distribution of, 550
optimism–pessimism as, 585–586
polygenic inheritance of, 63
self-efficacy as, 583–584
in siblings
birth-order effects on, 565–566
non-shared environment effect on, 564
shared environment effect on, 558–559
sibling contrast effect on, 564–565
split-parent identification and, 564–565
situational specificity of, 586–587
stability of over time of, 557
as survival strategies, 561–563
ultimate vs. proximate explanations of,
560–561
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-10
SI-10 ❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙
Persuasion. See also Attitudes; Compliance
by classical conditioning, 501–503
by cognitive dissonance induction,
506–508
elaboration likelihood model of, 503–504
in group discussions, 522–524
by heuristics induction, 503
normative vs. informational influence in,
517, 520–521, 523
in public-service messages, 520–521
sales techniques for, 525–528
Pessimism. See Optimism–pessimism
PET (positron emission photography).
See Neuroimaging of brain
Phenomenological reality, 577, 579–580.
See also Humanistic personality
theories
Phenotype vs. genotype, 54
Phobia(s), 608–609, See also Anxiety disorders
agoraphobia, 611
behaviorist view of, 609
biological preparedness and, 609
exposure treatment for, 592, 666–668
social vs. specific, 608
taijin kyofusho as, 598–599
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
See Cognitive development
Pituitary gland, 177, 179, 190
Place learning, 133
Placebo(s)
as control for subject-expectancy
effects, 46
effects on anxiety and depression,
646–647
effects on pain, 251
Play
age-mixed, 452
as aid in problem solving, 366
in animals, 120–122
cultural influences on, 450–451
evolution of laughter and smiling, and, 77
development of belief-reality distinction in,
416–417
development of reasoning in, 417
evolutionary function of, 120–122
gender differences in, 455–456
moral development in, 451–452
segregation by gender in, 454–455
self-actualization and, 566
skill learning in, 120–122, 450–451
social development in, 450–453
Polyandry, 78, 80–81
Polygenic characteristics, 60–63
Polygynandry, 78, 81–82
Polygyny, 78–80, 83
Pons, 155–156
Positive thinking. See Optimism–pessimism
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 611–612.
See also Anxiety disorders
Preattentive processing, 314
Prefrontal cortex
lobotomy of, 227–228, 648
role in
emotional experience, 227–228
episodic memory, 347
implicit attitude suppression, 500
movement control, 162–163
pain, 248
planning, 162
schizophrenia, 630
working memory, 324
Prejudice. See Person perception;
stereotypes in
Pride, 545–546. See also Self-perception;
self-esteem
Priming
defined, 317
as implicit memory, 345
of long-term memories, 317–318, 335–336
of mental concepts, 317–318, 336
in problem solving, 366
in tests for implicit stereotypes, 495
Prisoner’s dilemma games, 534–536.
See also Cooperation
Problem solving. See Reasoning
Proximate vs. ultimate explanations,
67, 560–561
Psychiatrist, defined, 642
Psychoactive drugs, 182. See also Drugs; Drug
therapies
Psychoanalysis. See Psychodynamic therapy
Psychocentric theory of the university,
17–19
Psychodynamic personality theory,
570–576
Adler’s, 572
of conversion disorder, 621
defenses in, 572–576. See also Defense
mechanisms
Freud’s (psychoanalytic), 571–572
Horney’s, 572
object-relations theory as, 572
unconscious motivation in, 571–572
Psychodynamic therapy, 651–656
childhood experiences as central to,
651–652, 655
clue(s) to unconscious mind in, 652–654
dreams as, 215, 653
free associations as, 652–653, 655
mistakes in speech and behavior as,
653–654
resistance as, 654
transference as, 654, 656
unconscious conflicts as central to,
651–652
Freud’s analysis of “the Rat Man” by,
655–656
relation between insight and cure in,
654–655
psychoanalysis as, 571, 651
Psychological factors affecting medical
condition, 622–625 See also Health/
Health psychology
Psychology, defined, 1, 24
as a profession, 19
Psychophysics, defined, 262
absolute threshold, 262
difference threshold, 262–263
Fechner’s logarithmic law, 263–264, A9
Stevens’s power law, 264–265, A10
evolutionary explanation of, 265–266
Weber’s law, 263, A9
Psychosurgery, 648–649
lesions to treat obsessive-compulsive
disorder, 649
prefrontal lobotomy, 221, 648
Psychotherapy, See also Behavior therapy;
Cognitive therapy; Humanistic therapy;
Psychodynamic therapy
common factors in, 670–672
defined, 650
evidence of effectiveness of, 669–670
types of, 650–651
PTSD. See Posttraumatic stress disorder
Public-goods games, 536–537
Punishment
altruistic, 537–538
in operant conditioning, 114
R
Rationalization
as defense mechanisms,
to reduce cognitive dissonance, 504–508
Reasoning, 341–361
analogies as basis for, in 353–355
judicial/political reasoning, 354
Miller Analogy Test, 355–356
Raven’s Progressive Matrices, 356
scientific reasoning, 352–353
attitude formation through, 503–504
concrete nature of, 360–362, 407, 408
creativity in problem solving, 363–367
cultural influences on
contextual vs. analytic reasoning,
367–369
mathematical reasoning, 372–373
reasoning about gender, 373–374
responses to logic problems, 367–368
spatial reasoning, 370–372
deductive, 359–362
biasing effect of content, 360–361
diagrams used in, 361
mental models used in, 362
series problems as, 359, 361
syllogisms as, 359–363, 417
elaboration likelihood model of, 503–504
formal operational, 360, 407–408
heuristics in, 503
inductive, 355
availability bias in, 356
confirmation bias in, 356–357
predictable-world bias in, 357–358
problem solving as, 363–366
candle problem in, 363
functional fixedness and, 364
mental set and, 364
mutilated checkerboard problem and,
362–363
playfulness and positive emotions as
aid to, 367
unconscious processes in, 365–366
language as basis for, 369–374 409–411
long-term working memory in, 328
moral, 461–462
verbal thought and, 410
Reciprocity. See Cooperation
Reflexes
brainstem and, 155–156
conditioning of, 94–98
definition of, 3, 94
habituation of, 94
nineteenth-century understanding of, 5
and spinal cord, 154
Reflexology, 5
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-11
❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙ SI-11
Reinforcement. See also Operant conditioning;
Reward
as component of reward, 190–193
as motivational incentive, 186
in operant conditioning, 110–119
Relaxed open-mouth display, 77
Reliability of measurement, 43. See also
Validity
in diagnoses of mental disorders, 595–596
in personality testing, 555, 557
Repression
as defense mechanism, 573
as personality style, 574–575
Response, defined, 94
Resting potential of neuron, 141
Reversible figures, 288
Reward. See also Reinforcement
components of, 190–191
compulsive gambling and, 194–195
contrast effects in, 118
drug addiction and, 194
liking vs. wanting in, 192–193
not needed for learning, 123–124
neural mechanisms of, 190–195
overjustification effect of, 119
Romantic love
adaptive functions of, 83–84, 222
as adult attachment, 467
adult development and, 467–468
monogamy and,83–84
universality of, 467
S
Sadness, 542
Sales techniques, 525–528. See also Persuasion
foot-in-the-door, 525–526
low-ball, 525
reciprocity, 526–528
shared identity, 528
Schedules of reinforcement, 112–113. See also
Operant conditioning
Schemas, 338
Schemes, in Piaget’s theory, 404, 406–408
Science, defined, 1–2
Schizophrenia, 625–635
attention and memory deficits in, 628–629
brain structural alterations in, 629–630
cultural effects on, 633–634
developmental model of, 635
diagnostic characteristics of, 626–628
delusions, 626–627
disorganized and catatonic behavior, 627
disorganized thought and speech, 626
hallucinations, 627
negative symptoms, 627–628
expressed emotion and, 633–634
drug therapy for, 629, 644–645
neurochemical bases for, 629
neuronal pruning and, 630
predisposing cause of,
early brain trauma as, 632
genes as, 630–631
prenatal environment as, 631–632
stressful life events and, 631–632
variations of, 628
Scripts, 338
Seasonal affective disorder, 617.
See also Depression
Selective breeding, 60–62
Self-actualization, 578–579
Self-determination
adaptive optimism and, 585–586
adaptive pessimism and, 585–586
drive for, in infants, 398–399
in employment, 548
humanistic perspective on, 577–578
locus of control and, 581–583
self-actualization and, 578–579
Self-efficacy, 583–584
Self-fulfilling prophesies, 484–485, 514
Self-perception, 483–491. See also Person
perception
big-fish-in-little-pond effect on, 487–488
effect of others’ appraisals on, 484–485
effect of reference group on, 487
as group member, 492–495
social vs. personal identity, 492–494,
538–539
group-enhancing biases, 493–494
humanistic view of self in, 577–578
independent vs. interdependent view
of self in, 490, 588–589
inferiority and superiority complex
in, 572
Pygmalion effect on 484–485
self-conscious emotions in, 543–546
self-esteem in, 486
related to pride and shame, 544–546
social identity and, 493
sociometer theory of, 486
self-inflating biases in, 488–490
cultural differences in, 491
self-serving attributional bias, 489
succumbing to praise, 489
self-recognition in children, 483
self-recognition in non-human apes, 483
social comparison and, 487–488
Self-report vs. observational data-collection
methods, 35–36
Sensation. See Sensory processes
Sensory memory. See Memory, sensory
Sensory processes. See also Hearing; Pain;
Psychophysics; Taste; Smell; Vision
adaptation in, 235
coding of quality and quantity by, 234,
235, 266
evolutionary functions of, 231–232, 267
functional in newborns, 398
neural mechanisms of, 232–234
overview of, 232–235
sensation vs. perception, 232
sensory areas of cerebral cortex,
159, 233
sensory neurons, 138–139, 152, , 233
sensory receptors, 233–234
transduction in, 234, 266–267
Sex chromosomes, 54, 205
Sex differences. See also Gender differences
in aggression, 84–86
in bitter taste sensitivity, 245
in causes of homosexuality, 207–208
in control of sexual drive, 202–205
in facial features, effect on attributions,
481–482
hormonal bases for, 178, 205–206
in infants’ behavior, 453
in olfactory sensitivity, 238–239
in pubertal timing, 456
in red-green color blindness, 279
related to species’ mating patterns,
77–84
Sexual drive and behavior, 201–208
in adolescence, 463–467
arousability vs. proceptivity in, 204–205
classical conditioning of, 105
cultural influences on, 201, 465, 466
double standard in, 464
family environment effect on, 465–466
Freudian view of, 571–572
hormonal influences on, 202–205
neural control of, 202–205
pheromones and, 241–242
sex differences in, 464
parental-investment theory of, 78–83, 464
species’ mating patterns and, 77–84
teenage pregnancy and, 463–464, 465–466
Sexual jealousy
levels of analysis of, 10–16
monogamy and, 83–84
Sexual orientation, 206–208
genetic influences on, 206–207
history of views of homosexuality, 600
prenatal influences on, 206–207
Shame, 544
Shaping of operant responses, 111–112
Short-term memory. See Memory, working
Shyness. See also Extraversion-introversion
response to in males vs. females, 567
social phobia and, 609
Sibling rivalry, 564–565
Sign language, 423, 427–428, 430–431
Silent bared-teeth display, 77
Skepticism, value of in science, 29
Skinner’s study of operant conditioning,
109–110
Sleep, 208–219. See also Dreams
age effects on, 215
arrangements for, in infants, 441–442
circadian rhythm of, 217–218
deprivation of, 216–217
EEG assessment of, 209–210
insomnia vs. nonsomnia, 216
light-dark cycle and, 218
memory consolidation in, 333–334
REM, 210–211, 214–215
stages of, 210–211
theories about functions of
body restoration, 213–214
brain maintenance, 214
preservation and protection, 212–213
Smell
adaptation in, 235
age and sex differences in, 238–239
anatomy of, 236–238
as component of flavor, 239
mate choice and, 240–241
mother-infant bonding and, 240
pheromones and, 241–242
transduction and coding in, 236–237
Smile
effect on happiness of, 225
evolution of, 76–77
of greeting vs. happiness, 76–77
Social cognition, defined, 15
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-12
SI-12 ❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙
Social development, 435–473
in adolescence, 456–466. See also
Adolescence
in adulthood, 466–472.
attachment in, 436–441. See also Attachment
cognitive development and, 408–411,
414–419
defined, 435
of empathy, 445–446
evolutionary perspective on, 473
gender differences in, 453–456
gender identity and, 454
gender self-segregation and, 454–455
in hunter-gatherer societies, 442–443,
445, 460
in infants, 435–443. See also Infants
of morality, 445–449, 451–452, 461–463.
See also Moral development
in old age, 470–472
parental care and, 439–443, 453–454
parental discipline styles and, 447–449
peers in, 449–455, 457–458
play in, 450–452, 455–456. See also Play
in school-age children, 449–456. See also
Children
sharing and, 445
in toddlers and preschoolers, 444–447.
See also Children
Social dilemmas, 533–539. See also Cooperation
Social loafing, 534
Social norms. See Conformity
Social pressure See also Compliance;
Conformity; Impression management;
Obedience
audience effects as, 512–413
choking due to, 513–515
defined, 511
emotional bases of, 543–546
evaluation anxiety and, 513
in group discussions, 522–524
sales pressure as, 525–528
social facilitation due to, 512
social interference due to, 512
stereotype threat as, 514–515
Social psychology, defined, 14, 475
Social referencing, 400, 433
Sodium-potassium pump, 142
Somatization disorder, 620–621
Somatoform disorders, 620–622. See also
Conversion disorder; Somatization
disorder
Somatosensation, 152
cerebral cortex area for, 159
restructured by experience, 173
topographic organization of, 160–161
pain as, 246
Spatial ability
cultural differences in, 370–372
hippocampus and, 174
place-learning and, 133–134
right hemisphere of brain and, 167
Split-brain syndrome, 165–169
Species-typical behaviors, 70–78
developed through play, 120–122
special learning abilities for, 128–134
Spinal cord, 154–155
ascending vs. descending tracts in, 155
diagram of, 139
pain regulation in, 248–250
pattern generators in, 155
reflexes organized by, 154
Split brain, 166–169
Spontaneous recovery
in classical conditioning, 97
in operant conditioning, 112
Standard deviation, defined 37, A5
Standardized scores, defined A6–A7
Statistical significance, 40–41
Stereoscope, 300
Stereotaxic instrument, 150–151
Stereotypes. See Person perception
Stevens’s psychophysical law, 265–266, A10
Stimulus, definition of, 94
Stimulus-response vs. stimulus-stimulus
theory, 99–101
Stress. See also Social pressure
analgesia caused by, 250–251
effect of, on brain size, 617
endorphin response in, 250–251
personality expressions and, 556
gender differences in response to, 568,
605–606, 623
hormonal response to, 178–180, 616
as precipitating cause of mental disorders,
603–604
prenatal, 631–632
role of, in causing
anxiety disorders, 606, 611–612
bipolar disorder, 618
conversion disorder, 621–622
depression, 615–617
generalized anxiety disorder, 607
heart disease, 623
immune suppression and colds, 624
mental disorders, general, 603–604
posttraumatic stress disorder, 611–612
schizophrenia, 631–633
sympathetic neural response to, 153–154
Stroop interference effect, 319
Subject-expectancy effects, 45–46
Synapse, synaptic transmission, 143–146
changes in, related to learning, 174–176
excitatory vs. inhibitory types of, 143–144
fast vs. slow types of, 143–146
integration of inputs in, 144–145
parts of, 143, 144
SSRI antidepressant action at, 647
Taijin kyofusho, 598–599
T
Taste
age and sex differences in, 225
anatomy of, 243–244
appetite related to, 198–199
bitterness of poisons, 245
coding of quality and quantity in, 235
evolutionary account of, 244–245
learned preferences & aversions in,
128–131
primary tastes in, 243
transduction in, 243
Testosterone, 178
aggression and competition, and, 203
sexual differentiation and, 205–207
sexual drive and, 203–205
Tests vs. naturalistic observations, 36
Thalamus, 155, 156
role of, in emotion, 227
role of, in vision, 283
Theory, defined, 29
Thought. See Consciousness, Reasoning,
Unconscious mind
Tract in CNS, 146, 154,155
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
(TMS), 147–148
Treatment of mental disorders, 639–673.
See also Care of the severely disturbed;
Drug therapies; Psychotherapy; Mental
health system
Twins, identical vs. fraternal, 56
in studies of heritability, 386–387
of intelligence, 387
of personality traits, 558–559
of schizophrenia, 631
U
Ultimate explanations, 67–68, 560–561.
See also Functional/evolutionary
explanations
Unconditioned response, 95. See also Classical
conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus, 95. See also Classical
conditioning
Unconscious mind
automatic reading by, 318–319
automatic stimulus processing by, 318–319
clues to, in psychoanalytic theory, 571,
652–654
conflict in, 651–652
conversion disorder and, 621–622
defense mechanisms in, 572–576
emotional contagion and, 542–543
emotional responses and, 227
implicit association tests of, 495–496
implicit attitudes in, 499–500, 501–503
implicit memories in, 342–346
implicit judgments by, 509
implicit stereotypes in, 495–498
implicit understanding of grammar by, 421
learning by, 111, 344–346
left-hemisphere interpreter and, 168
motivation and, 90–91, 571–572
operant conditioning and, 111
parallel processing in, 284–285
perceptual inferences by, 289–291, 297–299,
304–306
preattentive processing by, 314, 317–318
priming in, 317–318, 344, 495
problem solving by, 265–366
psychodynamic theories of, 571–576,
651–656
sensory memory in, 311
social-cognitive theories of, 580–581
as underpinning for consciousness, 348
visual control of movement by, 296–298
V
Validity of measurement, 43. See also
Reliability of measurement
in diagnosis of mental disorders, 587
face vs. criterion, 43
of intelligence, 378
of personality traits, 555–556
Values. See Attitudes
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-13
❙ SUBJECT INDEX ❙ SI-13
Variability, measure of, 37
Variance, as measure of variability, A4
Vestigial characteristics, 68–69
Videogames,
effect on attention capacity, 317
effect on fluid intelligence, 393
Vision See also Object recognition; Pattern
perception; Visual illusions
anatomy of, 270–274
blind spot in, 273
bottom-up processes in, 291
color, 274–281
additive color mixing and, 276–277
afterimages of, 280–281
law of complementarity in, 276–277
opponent-process theory of, 280–281
red-green blindness for, 279
standard chromaticity diagram of, 279
subtractive color mixing and, 275
three-primaries law of, 276–278
trichromatic theory of, 278–279, 281
wavelength of light and, 274–275
cone vs. rod, 273–274
dark adaptation in, 272–273
depth perception in, 298–306
binocular cues for, 299–301
monocular cues for, 301–302
evolution of, 270, 306
light adaptation in, 272–273
neural mechanisms of, 271–274, 281–284,
295–298
selective viewing in, 314–315
size perception in, 303–306
retinal image size and, 303
role of depth cues in, 303–306
size constancy and, 303
unconscious inference in, 289–291,
297–298, 304–306
visual sensory (iconic) memory, 314
working memory for, 321–322
Visual illusions
Ames room illusion, 303
illusory conjunctions, 286
illusory contours, 289
illusory lightness differences, 290–291
moon illusion, 305
Müller-Lyer illusion, 304–305
Ponzo illusion, 302–305
Visual images. See Mental image
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development,
408–412, 452–453
W
Weber’s law of difference thresholds,
263, A9
Working memory. See Memory, working
Z
Zone of proximal development, 411–412
Zygote, 56
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-14
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-15
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-16
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-17
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-18
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-19
Gray6e_Subject_Index.qxp:Gray6e_Subject_Index
12/4/09
12:33 AM
Page SI-20