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Networks for Research Collaboration in the Dryland West Asia-North Africa Region John Ryan,* Luis A. Materon, and Scott Christiansen ABSTRACT The goal of the international agricultural research system, under the auspices of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), is to improve agricultural production and alleviate hunger and malnutrition in developing regions of the world. In each of the research centers worldwide, the focus is on strategic applied and adaptive research in conjunction with scientists in the various national programs in their respective mandate zones. A network approach to communication is widely used to facilitate the flow of information and ideas and strengthen the partnership between centers and national researchers. Networks can be formal or informal, permanent or temporary, and expand or contract in response to the availability and fluctuations of funding. This article primarily describes three networks that represent a cross-section of those operated by the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Aleppo, Syria. Unique features of the Soil Fertility Network (SFN) are on-farm soil test calibration trials, regular workshops and proceedings, while the International Legume Inoculation Network (INONET) provides inoculum of Rhizobium and sponsors training courses. The Dryland Pasture and Forage Legume Network (DPFLN) is more managementoriented and publishes a newsletter. Despite current and regrettable shortfalls in funding by donor agencies, networks will continue to be a vital system of communication among collaborating researchers. D ESPITE the complacency about global hunger that has evolved in the world's developed economies in the past few decades, for many countries, notably in Africa and Asia, the threat of famine and deprivation is never far from the doorstep. The recent prognosis of Nordblom and Shomo ICARDA, P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria. Contribution from the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). Received 11 July 1994. "Corresponding author. Published in J. Nat. Resour. Life Sci. Educ. 24:155-160 (1995). (1994) regarding the prospect of many Middle Eastern countries to feed themselves is disquieting in the extreme. In the West, concerns about overproduction and the environmental consequences of land use have pushed the images of starving masses to the far corners of our collective consciousness. As a result, the haves of today' s world are less inclined to help the have nots, or are unaware of the pressing need to do so. Nevertheless, the past two decades have witnessed various encouraging approaches to improving agricultural research and education, and consequently, one would hope, overall rural and national development. In the past, the primary focus of U.S. technology transfer from the developed to developing countries was through degree-level training of host-country nationals, primarily in land-grant institutions. Subsequently, increased attention was paid to the circumstances from which these students came and to which they would return. The need to consider small-scale farming in developing countries was stressed (Rhoades, 1984), along with provisions of technology compatible with the socio-economics of such farming (Brams, 1980) and a framework to prioritize research (Hanson etal., 1977). Concomitant with, or perhaps an outcome of, these concerns has been (i) the continued support of Western-style educational institutions in Abbreviations: CGIAR, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research; ICARDA, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas; SFN, Soil Fertility Network; INONET, International Legume Inoculation Network; DPFLN, Dryland Pasture and Forage Legume Network; IARC, International Agricultural Research Centers; FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization; UNDP, United Nations Development Program; ALAD, Arid Lands Agricultural Development Program; WANA, West Asia and North Africa; MIAC, Mid-America International Agricultural Consortium; IDRC, International Development Research Center; IAV, Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire; IMPHOS, Institut Mundial du Phosphate; BNF, biological nitrogen fixation; IPGRI, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute; UNESCO, United Nations Educational and Cultural Organization; IAEA, International Atomic Energy Agency; NARS, National Agricultural Research Systems; BMZ, German Federal Ministry for Technical Cooperation; GTZ, German Agency for Technical Cooperation; NALRN, North Africa Legume Research Network; WALRN, West Asia Legume Research Network. J. Nat Resour. Life Sci. Educ., Vol. 24, no. 2, 1995 • 155 developing countries (Ryan, 1982) and (ii) to define tackle realistic problems,an awarenessof the advantages of conductingthesis research in situ (Masonet al., 1987). The International Agricultural Research Centers system (IARC), in collaboration with its national partners in research, takes the process of adapting to the research educationaland training needs of developingcountries a step further. The perception that agricultural research and education systems in manycountries either did not exist, were poorly developed, or did not address national or regional concerns laid the basis for change.The success of the GreenRevolution with rice (Oryza sativa L.) in ~he 1970s underlined what research can do to improvethe lives of many.Thus, in 1971, the CGIAR was formedas an international consortium sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and the World Bank. Its mission was to increase food production through adaptive research and training of national scientists and technicians through a worldwidenetwork of autonomous international centers. The CGIARis comprised of 42 donors, including 19 developedcountries, 10 international organizations and developmentbanks, three foundations, and several developing countries that contribute somefinancial donations and serve as representatives of the major developing regions of the world--Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America (CGIAR,1994). Of the 17 CGIARcenters nowestablished, some are commodity-orientedwith global mandates whereas others are moreregional and multidisciplinary in their orientation. In fulfilling its mandate,in-service training has beena majorthrust (Villareal and del Toro, 1993). The networkapproach to research in education and training has been used to share the combined experiences of regional scientists with commongoals and concerns (van Schoonhoven,1991). The basic concept of the network is communicationand training. In muchof the world, we take instant communication for granted; the telephone, fax, e-mail, in additionto traditional meetings,are whatlinks scientists. In developing countries, scientists are often isolated and resource-poor; for them the networkis essential and fosters personal and institutional relationships that transcend national boundaries. Serving that purpose at agricultural research centers worldwide,networks are formal and informal and take various shapes and constitutions. The International Center for Agricultural Researchin the Dry Areas (ICARDA),which emerged in 1977 as an extension of the Arid Lands Agricultural DevelopmentProgram (ALAD)of the Ford Foundation, has a spectrum of such networks. Having a global mandate for barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), and a regional one for wheat(Triticum sp.) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), ICARDA primarily addresses the cereal-legume-livestock-based farming systems of the dryland area of WestAsia and North Africa (WANA), a vast area of 10.5 million 2 where 350 million people live, and where farming is largely dependent on low and erratic rainfall. Most ICARDA scientists interact with researchersin manycountries of this diverse region through networks; manysuch networks extend beyond the region’s boundariesand involve other international centers. In this paper, wedescribe in detail three such networks-the Soil Fertility Network(SFN), the International Legume 156 ¯ J. NaL Resour. Life ScL Educ., VoL24, no. 2, 1995 Table 1. Characteristics of the three representative networks at the International Center for Agricultural Research at the Dry Areas (ICARDA}. Soil Fertility Objective: Network(SFN} Improve soft test recommendations,fertility management, and laboratory efficiency. Mainactivity: On-farmNand P trials, soil testing. Communication: Workshopsand published proceedings. Countries: Thirteen in West Asia and North Africa (WANA). International LegumeInoculation Network (INONET) Objectives: Determineneeds for inoculation, detect hostrhizobial specificities, train technicians and scientists. Mainactivity: Set up field trials. Communication: Information exchange, training courses, publications. Countries: Eleven in WANA region and seven outside WANA. Dryland Pasture and Forage Legume Network (DPFLN} Objectives: Bring international focus on pasture and forage developments in WANA. Mainactivity: Information exchange, pasture seed production, rotation trials, developmentand distribution of pod harvesters. Communication: Pasture and Forage Legume Network News, an informal newsletter published three times per year for regional and international subscribers. Countries: Seventeen countries in WANA, 34 countries outside, and 32 international organizations. Inoculation Network(INONET) for biological nitrogen fixation and legume inoculation, and the Dryland Pasture and Forage Network(DPFLN),which illustrate a range of regional and international networks operated from ICARDA. SOIL FERTILITY NETWORK After drought, lack of available soil nutrients wereseen as the major factor limiting crops in the rain-fed WANA region. However, soil fertility researchin mostcountries of the region was poorly developedand funded. Withlittle contact between national scientists, there was no strategy to tackle common problems. The establishment of a network of WANA national scientists wasseen as a step in the right direction. Giventhe potential importanceof soil testing as a guide to efficient fertilizer use (Matar, 1992), the primary concern of the SFN was a standardized approachto calibration of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus(P) soil tests with crop responses, with a strong emphasis on on-farm trials (Table 1). Communicationwas fostered by regular visits of the coordinatingscientists from ICARDA to individual countries and occasional traveling workshops of a fewscientists to trial sites. Highlightsof the SFNwere the formal workshopsconducted in 1986 to 1988 and 1991, and published proceedings. The initial SFN meeting in Aleppo, Syria, in 1986 (Soltanpour, 1987) was jointly sponsored by ICARDA, the Mid-AmericaIntemational Agricultural Consortium (MIAC) in Morocco, and the International DevelopmentResearch Center (IDRC).Along with somegeneral backgroundpapers, reports dealt with P tests and the responsesof cereals, i.e., bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and durumwheat (T. turgidum var. durum), and legumes in Morocco, Cyprus, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, and Pakistan. Mostreports indicated consistent crop responses to P fertilizer. Several on-going studies of soil test methodsfor N for field crops were also reported, along with a review of N use and crop response in Mediterraneanenvironmentsin relation to rainfall. Workplans wereestablished by participating scientists for conductingN and P fertilizer trials with wheat. A secondmeetingin 1987in Ankara,Turkey(Matar et al., 1988), broughtan expandedrange of participants, and considered issues such as residual P for barley (Cyprus), plant diagnosticnorms(Tunisia), calibration of different P tests for cereals, legumes,and oilseeds (Pakistan), P fertilization legumes (Syria), and wheat responses in Morocco,Jordan, and Syria. Workplansfor on-farm trials were expandedand standardized procedures were developed for site selection, soil samplingand analysis, fertilizer treatments and experimental design, and quality control within the region’s soil testing laboratories. This was subsequently followed by a survey of 50 mainly public (government and university) laboratories, whichinvolved a standard soil sample sent to each laboratory for analysis and a questionnaire (Ryan and Garabet, 1994). Inconsistencies in soil test results indicated major weaknesses,and the need for standardization. Early SFNactivities represented considerable progress. Several field studies from northwestern Syria, Jordan, and Moroccodemonstrated the universal response to applied N whenrainfall was adequate. Theimportanceof crop rotations, particularly involving legumes, and of soil type, notably involving depth, were highlighted, as well as soil nitrate, whichcouldgive a reliable indication of Nfertility in rain-fed soils. Additional delegations attended the third SFNmeetingin Amman,Jordan, in 1988 (Ryan and Matar, 1990), including representatives fromIraq and Yemen.In addition to P calibration studies with cereals and soil-testing procedures, topics included modelingof residual P responses; P placement,i.e., bandingvs. broadcasting; P in rotations; and the adsorption isotherms to evaluate crop P requirements. Workplanswere modifiedto include separate P trials with basal N, rather than moreelaborate and expensivefactorial trials, since manysites were not consistently responsiveto both elements. The importance of N was again stressed by reports from Morocco, Jordan, Pakistan, Cyprus, and Iraq. A morein-depth assessment of the various soil N forms along with residual N was made, and the significance of mineralization potential was introduced in a laboratory-greenhouse study from Morocco. Similarly, the conceptof Nin the regions farmingsystemsand the role of organic matter was also introduced. A fourth SFNmeeting, held in Agadir, Morocco, in May 1991 (Ryanand Matar, 1992) involved newparticipants from Iran, Libya, Algeria, and Spain. Themeetingwas the first to have a significant contribution from researchers at regional universities, notably from the Institut Agronomiqueet Veterinaire (IAV)-HassanII, Rabat, and the Universities Jordan and C6rdoba(Spain). This introduced a theoretical dimension, which had been lacking in previous meetings and which helped to explain observations previously madefrom a diversityof field trials. Somepresentations dealt with the basic behavior and mineralogyof P in Mediterranean-regionsoils (Spain), notably buffering capacityin relation to soil P tests and distribution of P formswithin soil profiles (Morocco).Aspin-off from this effort wasa recent reviewof soil P in Mediterranean soils by scientists from ICARDA, Spain, and Morocco(Matar et al., 1992). A newsoil test for P, using dye-impregnated paper strips, was presented (Egypt), while a modification of the standard Olsen bicarbonate method, i.e., NH4HCO3-DTPA, was reported as being useful (Pakistan). Again, the importance of N for wheat, barley, and triticale (X Triticosecale Wittm..ex A. Camus)was clear from field responses along with emphasis on rainfall and temperature (Syria, Jordan). The issue of mineralization was developed further by a consideration of the various soil N fractions. Reports from Cypruspointed to a novel approach to fertility assessment, whichinvolvedtissue-testing for nitrate. Otheritems included, for the first time, potassium(K) and its possible significance in the region (Morocco);K is adequatein rain-fed soils, but K fertilizer wouldbe neededunder irrigated conditions, especially in sandy soils and for crops such as sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris L.) and potato (Solanum tuberosumL.). A newdimensionto soil testing involved the idea of spatial variability; this has importantimplicationsfor field sampling and subsequent test values. More emphasis was also placed on economicconsiderations, e.g., assessing strategies for fertilizer allocation and N needin relation to crop rotations. The SNFadopted the Olsen procedure (NaHCO3)as the official soil P test for the regionusing a 0- to 20-cmsoil depth; about 6 mgkg-~ was consideredthe critical range belowwhich a responseto fertilizer is likely. Fertilizer P rates of 10 to 20 kg ha-~ were recommended, depending on the extent of deficiency. Althoughsimilar criteria have beendevelopedfor nitrate, the test is less reliable thanfor P, since it is influenced by the cropping system, nitrate mobility with varying soil moistureregime, and with the soil’s mineralizationpotential. Recommendations for cereal fertilization range from little or no N after legumes, 20 to 30 kg ha-~ under normal dryland conditions, and up to 90 kg N ha-~ in high-rainfall years. The manygray areas of current knowledgewere identified and will providethe core of the scientists’ concernsin the coming years. In demonstratingthe benefits of soil testing, the SNFcan serve as a catalyst for governmentalinstitutions and the private sector to provide such services. In most countries of the region, fewfarmerstest soils. Indeed,facilities for testing are poorly developedand often too expensivefor the smallscale farmer. Future SNFefforts will continue to be a forum for dryland soil scientists and agronomistsof the region to share information and enhance their professional development. Indeed, in the absence of a regional applied soil science-agronomyjournal, the SFNproceedings provided an outlet for material that maynot otherwise have been published. The initial SFNphase has been funded by UNDPand Institut Mundialdu Phosphate (IMPHOS).It is hoped that continued funding will be forthcomingfor a secondphase to build on the successful foundationthat has beenlaid, and to documentits impact. Ultimate success of the SNFwill be measured,not in publications or conferenceproceedings, but in the extent to whichfarmers use scientific information to manage their soil and fertilizer resourcesin a sustainable and economic manner. INTERNATIONAL LEGUME INOCULATION NETWORK The dryland cereal farming system of the WANA region is characterized by rotational cropping. Traditionally, moisture J. Nat. Resour. Life ScLEduc.,VoL24, no. 2, 1995¯ 157 is conserved and fertility restored during the fallow year (Harris et al., 1991).Fallowedland is either clean tilled or, in North Africa, left to growweeds, whichare grazed in the spring. Increasingly, fallow is being replaced by forage legumessuch as vetch (Viciasativa L.), pea (PisumsativumL.), and chickling (Lathyrus sativus L.), as well as pasture legumessuch as medics (Medicagospp.) (Osmanet al., 1990). Theformergroupsare sownannually, while the latter are selfregenerating each year. Thoughfallow replacement with legumesdoes not conservemoisture, the potential increases in annual output from the system are substantial (Beck and Materon, 1988). This potential is what underscores the research programon medics and related N2-fixing species at ICARDA. While indigenous Medicagospecies are found throughout the WANA region, they are sparsely distributed due to overgrazing and poor pasture management.The impetus to develop ley farming came from Australia. However, a major stumblingblock in the efforts to introduce biotypes to new areas is the absence of specific rhizobia (Materonand Cocks, 1988; Materon, 1991). For example, Materon and Danso (1991) showedthat in one soil with only indigenousrhizobial strains, M. rigidula nodulatedwell, whereasM. truncatula did not. In such cases, inoculation with the appropriate strains is necessary. Production and handling of suitable inoculant is crucial to the success of any biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) technology transfer program. However, a suitable medium is essential to ensure rhizobial survival (Wolfet al., 1983). In an overviewof BNFresearch in Egypt, Sims et al. (1984) concludedthat muchof the research was unrelated field situations and stressed the need for BNFtechnologyto be presented as apackageofpractices to farmers. Recognition of such an outreach approach was the basis for ICARDA’s International Inoculation Network(INONET),which focused on pasture and forage legumes. In view of the manyconstraints to introducing pasture legumesthat existed, i.e., limited seed and inoculumproduction facilities, and little local expertise (Materonand Cocks, 1988), INONET came into being in 1986 following recommendationsof participants in an N2-fixation workshop(Beck and Materon, 1988), which urged the establishment of regional need-to-inoculate experiments throughout the WANA region. As with SFN,INONET was established to forge closer links betweenWANA scientists involved with soil microbiology and N research. It also sought to disseminateinformation on rhizobial strain selection, host specificity, inoculant production and seed inoculation. The INONET differed from the SFNmainly in that it providedinoculumand seed for testing in the various environments of the WANA region, from high elevation plateaus in Turkeyand Algeria to milder lowland areas in Moroccoand Syria. Anexampleof such research was the trial at EI-Khroub in northern Algeria, in collaboration with the Algerian Ministry of Agriculture, to evaluate ICARDA strains of Rhizobium meliloti to fix N in annual medics from Syria (M. rigidula selection 716, M. noeanaselection 2351, M. rotata selection 2123) and local Medicagoecotypes (M. aculeata, M.ciliaris selection 80, and M. scutellata). A major focus oflNONET was training, mostly conducted at ICARDA’s headquarters in Tel Hadya, Aleppo. Normally of 2 weeks’duration with up to 10 participants, the courses Life ScLEduc.,VoL24, no. 2, 1995 158 ¯ J. Nat.Resour. ranged from production ofrhizobial inoculants to field techniques to measure BNF(Table 1). Individuals selected for training are usually technicians and are nominated by a cooperator; however, somecourse participants had M.S. and Ph.D.degrees in agricultural microbiology.Onecourse, "Techniques in Rhizobiologyof Pasture and Forage Legumes,"was held outside ICARDA headquarters in Morocco, and was cosponsored by FAO,NitTAL(Nitrogen Fixation by Tropical Agricultural Legumes), and the University of Moulay Ismail (Meknes,Morocco).The training material was eventually publishedas a technical manual(Becket al., 1993), which has beendistributed to all regional cooperators. While INONET was primarily focused on countries of the WANA region, it also involved cooperators in Mediterranean areas of Australia, USA(California), and Chile, as well Italy, Spain, France, and Greece. Communication with cooperators was mainly by correspondence and occasional personal visits. As coordinator, ICARDA provided rhizobial cultures, workplansfor experimentation,and technical assistance. Normally,at least three rhizobial cultures in pure form are provided to investigators, i.e., lyophilized ampoules, instead of peat bags; they then producetheir owninoculants. Others prefer the peat bags whenno laboratory facilities are available for inoculant production.Thesestrains are of interest to the adapted pasture or forage species of individual national programs. Uninoculatedcontrols with and without P and N are used to compare biomass yield and nodule number and quality. Workplansalso accommodatethe impact of pesticides and N on rhizobia and measuringNfixation by the isotopic dilution method. Although the main focus of INONET is Rhizobium, one collaborativeeffort with the Universityof Granada(Spain), involvedsoil inoculation with mycorrhizaein relation to the commonMedicago species--M, rigidula, M. rotata, M. aculeata, and M. polymorpha.Thoughit is core-funded, it does, however,stimulate assistance indirectly through FAO, United Nations Educational and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),and IntemationalAtomic Energy Agency(IAEA). DRYLAND PASTURE AND FORAGE LEGUME NETWORK Unlike SFN and INONET,both of which are heavily discipline-oriented, the DrylandPasture and Forage Legume Network (DPFLN)is systems management-oriented--and more broadly based. Since most national programs in WANA are organized in a disciplinary basis, ICARDA’s Pasture, Forage, and Livestock Programattempted to strengthen the link with National Agricultural Research Systems(NARS) setting up a network. This concept was debated at a workshop held in Perugia (Italy) (Christiansen et al., 19931). Subsequently, in 1991, the DPFLN was established at a workshop at ICARDA to improve communicating and sharing of resources amongscientists to strengthen the efficiency of their research and development work. Whilethe fertility and inoculation networks were centeroriented, the DPFLN sought to catalyze links amongNARS within the WANA region and between NARSand international institutions. Althoughthe DPFLN is primarily dependent on core funds, someactivities in North Africa were supported by France; support also came from UNDPfor Table 2. Regional and subregional networks at the International Center for Agricultural Researchin the Dry Areas (ICARDA).? Network name Barley Pathology North Africa Grain LegumeResearch (NALRN) West Asian LegumeResearch {WALRN) North Africa Faba BeanResearch Wheat/BarleyHessianFly Screening WANA Plant Genetic Resources (WANANET) Soil Fertility Network(SFN) WANASeed Agricultural Information for WANA DNAFingerprinting of Chickpea (AscochytaBlight Fungus} Donor USAID ICARDA/BMZ/GTZ ICARDA/BMZ/GTZ BMZ/GTZ ICARDA/MIAC IPGRI/ICARDA/ACSAD/FAO ICARDA/UNDP/IMPHOS ICARDA/GTZ/USAID ICARDA GTZ/ICARDA Type Research,cooperation,information, germplasm exchange Germplasmexchange Germplasmexchange Cooperation Germplasmexchange Cooperation,information Cooperation/information Cooperation/information Information/material Information/cooperation/material Abbreviations(see Table 1): USAID, UnitedStates Agencyfor International Development; BMZ, German Federal Ministryfor TechnicalCooperation; GTZ,German Agencyfor TechnicalCooperation;MIAC, Mid-America International Agricultural Consortium;IMPHOS, Institut Mundiaidu Phosphat; FAO,Foodand Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations; ACSAD, ArabCenter for the Studies of Arid Zonesand DryLands; UNDP, United NationsDevelopment Fund;IPGRI,International Plant GeneticResourcesInstitute. Table 3. International networksat the International Center for Agricultural Researchin the Dry Areas (ICARDA}.? Title Donor International legumeinoculation (INONET) DurumGermplasmEvaluation Cereal International Nursery International LegumeTesting {ILTN) Dryland Pasture and Forage Legume(DPFLN) Faba BeanInformationService Lentil ExperimentalNewsServices (LENS) RACHIS (Wheat-BarleyNewsletter) Global Grain LegumeDrought Research (GGLDRN) ICARDA Italy ICARDA ICARDA ICARDA/IPGRI IDRC/ICARDA IDRC/ICARDA IDRC/ICARDA FAO/ICRISAT/ICARDA Type Cooperation,information,Networkmaterial exchange Information, germplasmexchange Germplasmexchange Germplasmexchange Information,cooperativetrials, adaptedtechnology Information Information Information Information, cooperation,germplasmexchange Additionalabbreviations(see Table2 also}: IDRC,International Development ResearchCenter; ICRISAT, InternationalCenterfor Researchin the SemiAridTropics. countries in West Asia. The DPFLN initially involved representatives from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Cyprus, Jordan, Syria, Turkey, and Iran; recently, Pakistan and Lebanon officially joined. The DPFLNwas divided into three subregions--North Africa, West Asia, and the highlands (Algeria, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan), in recognition of the cultural and national diversity and the dominant role of environment on pasture and livestock production. A unique feature of the DPFLNis its newsletter, The Dryland Pasture and Forage Legume Network News. This informal vehicle for communication was created and supported by a grant from the Intemational Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) in Rome.To date, nine issues of the News have created interest in, and have given a muchneeded focus to, the Mediterranean region. In addition, there have been manycontributions to the newsletter from Europe, the Western Hemisphere, NewZealand, and Australia. The DPFLNhas catalyzed cooperative activities in Morocco, Algeria, and Syria, where research projects are based on manufacture and use of small machines to harvest and condition pasture seed, and on long-term rotation trials in which pasture and forages can be compared with other crop alternatives. Through the DPFLN,ICARDAemphasizes appropriate machines for on-farm legume seed production. Prototypes of a locally madehand-operated seed (pod) sweeper, which threshes, cleans, and scarifies seed, have been sent to Algeria, Morocco, Lebanon, Ethiopia, Jordan, and Iraq. The DPFLN also helps in collecting, describing, and evaluating local genetic resources, and provides research support to identify the best utilization of pasture legumes by animals, through grazing or hay production, and in rotations with cereal crops. The latter aspect is currently being investigated at headquarters and in a regional long-term trial in Algeria. Similarly, the DPFLNassisted three highland countries (Turkey, Pakistan, and Iran) in identifying priorities for cooperative research in pasture, forage, and livestock (Christiansen and Adham,1993). While there is muchinterest in involving other highland countries in the DPFLN,i.e., Afghanistan and former Soviet republics, little progress has been made. In addition to language barriers, the state of political flux makes meaningful contact difficult. Although the DPFLN deals with animals, crops, and people and is more broadly based than the other two networks, its institutional obstacles are correspondingly greater. OTHER NETWORKS The wide range of networks at ICARDAreflect the institution’s strong regional emphasis (Table 2) and its global connections (Table 3), as well as its subject concerns--grain legumes and cereals, principally barley, bread wheat, and durum wheat. The Barley Network reflects ICARDA’sworldwide mandate for working with and improving this crop, while the Hessian Fly Screening Network underlines the importance of this wheat pest in North Africa. The cereal nursery reflects ICARDA’s pivotal role for these crops, which serves as a repository for the region’s genetic resources, both for landraces and developed cultivars. Similarly, the dominant position of food legumes is reflected in networks for North Africa (NALRN)and West Asia (WALRN).The recent Grain Legume Drought Research Network, sponsored jointly by ICARDAand ICRISAT, reflects the strong links and commonconcerns of these sister international dryland centers. A specific network devoted to more basic research was established for DNAfingerprinting of Ascochyta, a major disease of chickpea. J. Nat. Resour.Life ScLEduc., Vol. 24, no. 2, 1995¯ 159 Since information dissemination is one of the pillars of its existence, ICARDA supports the regular publication of newsletters in journal format for cereals (Rachis) and lentils (Lens). All networks involve information exchange in one form or other, but several provide materials, such as germplasm. The majority of networks are funded in part or fully by outside agencies, mainly from Canada (IDRC) and Germany (BMZ, GTZ). The intensity of activity in any one network depends on the coordinator, the degree of cooperation with NARS, and on funding. CONCLUSIONS Most of ICARDA's research and outreach activities in the WANA region is based in networks. This mechanism serves as a vital conduit of information between coordinating center scientists and collaborators in the various national programs. Networks ensure that center research continues to be farmerdriven and based on real rather than imaginary problems, and help identify common problems and promote common strategies to solve them. With an educational and informational platform, some networks are well-established with tangible achievements, whereas others are less active and may exist in name only. The network system is a flexible one that can fluctuate with the ebb and flow of funding; they can contract in lean years, again to expand in times of plenty. The network system, however transformed, will continue to catalyze research efficiency, information exchange, and technology transfer in this environmentally harsh and increasingly fooddeficient part of the world. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Our sincere thanks to Dr. Samir El-Sebae Ahmed, Dr. Michel Obaton, Dr. Robert Booth, and Dr. Elizabeth Bailey for reviewing this manuscript and for their helpful comments. 160 J. Nat. Resour. Life Sci. Educ., Vol. 24, no. 2, 1995