Download applied watershed management

APPLIED WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT: NRM 323/324 ;
LWR 406
N.L Mufute,
LWRM Department, MSU
[email protected]
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Module Outline
Introduction
Watershed management Principles
Characteristics of a Watershed
Land-use Impacts on watersheds- Potential problems in a watershed,
Watershed Degradation
Data Sources for watershed management
Tools and principles for watershed management
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Watershed Delineation
Public/ stakeholder participation
Soil Loss Estimation; SLEMSA, USLE, Wind Equation.
Rapid Rural Appraisals and Participatory Rural Appraisals
Environmental Impact Assessments,
Water Assessment: Quality and Quantity
Flood control/prevention
Vegetation cover assessments
Biological Monitoring Methods
Strategies for integrated watershed Resources Conservation and
Management
Watershed Management plan
INTRODUCTION
• Watershed degradation in many developing countries threatens the
livelihood of millions of people and constrains the ability of countries to
develop or maintain a healthy agricultural and natural resource base.
• Increasing populations of people and livestock are rapidly depleting the
existing natural resource base because the soil and vegetation systems
cannot support present levels of use.
• In a sense, the carrying capacity of these lands is being exceeded. As
populations continue to grow, the pressure on forests, grazing lands, and
marginal agricultural lands lead to inappropriate cultivation practices,
forest removal, and grazing intensities that, in the extreme case, leave a
barren land that yields unwanted sediment and damaging floods to
downstream communities.
• Recognizing the importance of resource conservation and sustainable use,
especially in most of the developing countries where the economy is
depending predominately on agriculture, watershed management has
received over the last few decades an increasing attention from countries
themselves as well as from concerned international and regional
organizations.
What is a Watershed?
• Other terms used interchangeably for a watershed are drainage basin or
catchment.
• A watershed is an area of land that forms the drainage system of a stream or river.
• It can also be defined as an area of land that drains to a common point. It captures
water from precipitation on land within specific topographic boundaries such as
hills, valleys, mountains and other landscapes.
• It is this function of a water shed that provides or makes available the clean water
that is so necessary for life.
• Watershed boundaries follow major ridge lines around channels and meet at the
bottom where water flows out of the watershed from a common point.
• Watersheds are dynamic places that sometimes become wet or dry due to high and
low rainfall conditions, with differences in quality and quantity depending upon the
season and even on what happens during an individual storm.
• Because water moves downstream, any activity that affects the water quantity,
quality or rate of movement at any location affects locations downstream.
• A Watershed therefore is the ideal unit for multi-disciplinary planning and
management of land and water resources – ensure continuous benefits –
sustainable way
Watershed
(Source: F. X. Browne, Inc. Watershed Management Fact Sheet)
Watershed Management
• It can be defined as the implementation of management
systems which ensure the preservation, conservation and
sustainable exploitation of the land and water resources for
the socio-economic need of human society and the
community concerned.
• It provides a systematic way for integrated development in
any given watershed.
• It involves the exploration and development of the complex
interrelationship between the resources of a watershed and
the people of the area.
• Watershed management has to be sustainable and based on
sound principles.
• A well managed watershed would permit maximum possible
stability through the process of production, utilisation and
where possible, regeneration of the resources within it.
The Need for Watershed Management
• Natural environments and ecosystems are generally fragile and susceptible
to degradation.
• The degradation can be attributed to low or erratic rainfall patterns
(climatic variability and change), increasing biotic pressure in the absence of
adequate and appropriate management practices to augment and conserve
the natural resources.
• The activities of people who live within a watershed affect the health of the
waters that drain into it.
• These activities sometimes also change soil characteristics, vegetation type
or cover, water quality, quantity, or rate of flow and other characteristics of
rivers or streams in the watershed.
• Population growth and poverty on the land and pressure of rising demand
from affluence on the other areas have also been exerting powerful
pressure on resources in the watersheds.
• Therefore careful implementation of resource management techniques on a
watershed basis is essential for the sustainable availability of water and
other natural resources essential for the sustenance of communities.
Sound Watershed Management
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The main objectives of a sound watershed management program should therefore be to;
Optimise the utilisation of land and water resources for multi-sectoral needs without
compromising the ecological integrity of ecosystems,
Reduce surface runoff, soil erosion, sedimentation, destruction of wetlands, floods and
water pollution (i.e. to prevent or reduce watershed degradation),
Ensure adequate supply of quality water.
Some of the measures that can be adapted to achieve this include;
Conservation of natural vegetation cover and ecosystems in headwaters of rivers,
Implementation of sound soil and water conservation practices both , structural and nonstructural at farm and community levels ,
Construction of special purpose hydraulic structures such as dams to store water and to
control floods and sedimentation in downstream areas.
Practicing integrated water resources management ; including for example implementation
of water conservation and demand management programmes in order to support the
optimum and equitable utilisation of water resources,
Development of appropriate, acceptable and implementable land use plans using
participatory approaches,
Establishment of watershed authorities to regulate water and natural resources
development ,management and utilisation at catchment, national and international levels,
Establishment of catchment protection and or rehabilitation projects involving local people
and promotion of exchange of knowledge and experiences between projects, communities
and even countries.
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES
Important Principles of Watershed Management
• Land should be utilised according to capability
• Maintain adequate cover for prevention and
control of soil erosion
• Conserve maximum possible rainwater at places
where it falls- Promote/Increase groundwater
recharge
• Drain out excess water with safe velocity to avoid
soil erosion and floods and; store it for future use
• Overall management of the available resources in a
sustainable way
Watershed Management Principles Cont.
Approaches to watershed management
• There are many ways in which a watershed can be managed.
• These can however be grouped into two main approaches; Integrated
Watershed management approach and River board approach.
• Watershed Approach / Integrated Watershed Approach
• There is a broader view of the environment; activities can be more easily
interconnected across local and regional boundaries.
• Takes into account the entire watershed, all streams, rivers, lakes and other
bodies and all its sources rather than individual rivers / waterways.
• It takes into cognisance the interdependencies of the biotic and abiotic
components of the watershed and regards the watershed as a functional unit.
• Includes stakeholders,
• Uses sound technical information,
• Sets clear objectives and priorities,
• Uses a systems approach that integrates all concerns and challenges,
• Measures success through monitoring and data gathering,
• It is interdisciplinary.
Watershed Management Principles Cont.
The river board approach
• Usually focused on a single water way or sub watershed,
• Not integrated, it is usually disjointed therefore difficult to
coordinate activities in different waterways/ sub watersheds
within the same watershed;
• Priority is usually given to certain aspects of the watershed,
leaving out the rest. For example to natural resources
conservation with little focus on human activities and
people priorities and needs;
• Neglects other beneficiaries and stakeholders’ involvement
and contribution in the planning and implementation of the
watershed management interventions.
• Equity, equality and efficiency difficult to achieve.
Steps in Establishing a Successful
Watershed Management Program
• Determine the watershed boundaries.
• Identify Stakeholders
• Establish a Watershed Management
Organization/Institution
• Develop Short- and Long-Term Goals
• Identify and Prioritize Problem Areas
• Involve the Public/ stakeholders
• Develop a Watershed Management Plan
• Implement the Watershed Management Plan
• Develop a Public Information Program
• Develop a Monitoring Program
• Re-Assess and Revise the Management Plan
CHARACTERISTICS OF A WATERSHED
• Watershed characteristics refer to the biophysical and socio
economic features prevalent in the watershed.
• These characteristics need to be identified for management
and planning purposes in the watershed.
• These include;
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Size
Shape
Physiography
Climate
Drainage
Vegetation
Geology and soils
Topography
Hydrology
Hydrogeology
Land use
Socio-Economic Aspects
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
• Size- The size of a watershed forms the basis for
further classification categories. Bali (1980) came
up with the following classification;
• Watershed
>500km2
• Sub watershed
100-500km2
• Milli watershed
10-100km2
• Micro watershed
1-10km2
• Mini watershed
<1km2
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
• Shape – Watersheds differ in their shape mainly due
to factors related to the geology of the area. The
general watershed shapes are pear, elongated,
triangular and circular.
• Shape determines the length-width ratio which in turn
affects the runoff characteristics of the watershed.
• Physiography – Type of land, its altitude and the
physical disposition has a bearing on the climate and
on land use planning in the watershed. As an example,
a hilly area could be useful mainly for forestry and flat
plains could be useful in crop production.
• Drainage- The order, pattern and density of drainage
have a profound influence on run off, infiltration, land
management, etc. It determines the flow
characteristics and erosion behaviour.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
• Geology and soils- Rocks and their structure control the formation of a
watershed itself because their nature determines size, shape, physiography
, drainage and ground water conditions.
• Soils which are derivatives of rocks have a bearing on the type of vegetation
in an area or types of crops that can be grown. Soil parameters such as
depth, moisture and fertility determine the choice of crops to grow for
example.
• Rocks and soils together influence water flow, infiltration, seepage and
storage.
• Hydrology- Availability, quality and distribution of water is basic to the
growing of vegetation and crops.
• Hydrological parameters (climate, topography and geology) help in the
quantification of available water for human use and for the environment.
• Land Use- It is vital for planning and implementation of projects in a
watershed.
• It portrays man’s impact on the specific watershed and forms the basis for
categorisation of the land for formulation of a pragmatic action plan.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
Socio-Economic Issues• Information on people, their numbers, gender,
wealth/poverty levels, literacy levels, cultural
practices, and beliefs, level of participation on
issues of common concern in the area, type and
level of economic activity is equally important in
the sustainable management of a watershed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
• Vegetation- Detailed information on vegetation helps on its
sustainable utilisation and management.
• Role of Vegetation in Watershed Management
• Arrests soil erosion
• Encourages infiltration there by reducing runoff,
• Slows down the building up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
• Provides basic needs; - food , shelter, industrial and medicinal raw
materials, timber , etc.,
• It beautifies the environment- it has a scenic value,
• Forests (hence watersheds) are threatened by the encroachment
of farms, livestock grazing, deforestation, construction of dams,
roads, mining and other activities. A change in vegetation or land
use can have a negative effect on the watershed e.g. excessive
runoff, erosion, deposition and land degradation.
• However not all the effects are negative for example deposition of
sediments can be a rich source of fertile lands for downstream
farming communities (flood plains).
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
Determinants of vegetation variability
• Climate- Differences in rainfall and temperature regimes can also give rise
to deferent vegetation characteristics,
• Topographic factors - give rise to different vegetation types, for example
• Vegetation at the top of the catena is likely to be different from the one at
the bottom,
• Differences in soils- Soil types, soil moisture regimes, soil temperature
regimes and pH lead to changes in the environment which leads, to
different types of vegetation.
• Fire- Areas prone to fires have a vegetation described as fire climax
vegetation ,
• Human activities and land use- have both negative (e.g. land clearing and
poor tillage practices) and positive (e.g. Plantations) effects on vegetation.
• N.B these factors do not affect vegetation in isolation; they work together
to cause vegetation variability. If we can detect those vegetation variations
caused by the different factors, then we can be better able to manage the
vegetation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
Vegetation Characteristics
• Vegetation structure
There are 4 types of vegetation structure;
– Physiognomic structure
• It describes the vegetation outlook , what does it look like , is it wetland , bush land, grassland or
tree,
– Floristic structure – describes that composition of species,
– Physiographic structure – describes the physical characteristics of vegetation –
broadleaf , narrow leafed , coniferous, deciduous etc,
– Stand structure- describes the patterning of vegetation – is it clumpy or scattered.
• Height,
• Diameter or circumference of the tree species at the breast height ,
• Basal area of the tree,
• Density of trees – number of trees per unit area,
• canopy cover
Understanding vegetation characteristics helps to;
– Better understand factors responsible for vegetation variation,
– Estimate of the relative abundance of species,
– Have an insight into the condition of vegetation; e.g. is it a fire climax vegetation, or
is it always disturbed by herbivores.
– Have an insight on how the vegetation can be utilised.
– Understanding vegetation characteristics therefore gives an indication of the
management techniques that can be employed on the vegetation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
Environmental (ecological) Gradients
• It is a term used to describe a range of environmental conditions
that affect distribution of plant species.
• Plant species are usually abundant where the environmental
conditions are optimum (pH, moisture, temperature, nutrients,
sunlight, etc).
• Therefore species composition changes along environmental
gradients and the significance of this is realised in the occurrence
of different vegetation types in space and time,
• The study of vegetation – environmental relations along gradients
have therefore formed an important basis for watershed
management.
• There are two types of environmental gradients; these are direct
and indirect gradients.
• Direct gradients- Those that impose a direct influence on
vegetation growth such as soil pH, nutrients availability, soil
moisture, temperature, etc.
• Indirect gradients are those that do not impose a direct influence
on vegetation growth e.g. topography , slope, altitude etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
Environmental Gradients Cont.
• Environmental gradients are important in landsoil management because;
• They are an indication of land and soil
management problems that are likely to be found
at a site such as acidity , sodicity , drainage , etc. ,
• They provide an indication of land potential for a
specified land use e.g. potential for wetland rice,
tobacco, etc,
• They serve as a preliminary classification of areas ,
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
Uplands
• Soils are mainly coarse to medium grained, well drained, shallow and
infertile sandy soils,
• They have a low percentage clay , base saturation , low CEC ,
• They are acidic i.e. have low pH values,
• They are non sodic; ESP values < 4
• The major land management problems associated with these watershed
sites are mainly acidity due to rapid leaching, poor soil fertility and erosion.
• Poor cultivation practices easily lead to soil degradation and low yields.
• Land management in these areas should include liming, gypsum
incorporation and fertiliser application. On liming, the H+ cation is replaced
by metallic cations. Liming material should contain oxides and hydroxides of
carbonates of calcium and magnesium. Liming has the following benefits;
• Solubility of aluminium and iron oxides decreases,
• Percentage base saturation increases,
• Exchangeable calcium and sodium increases,
• Biological activity and soil structure improves by flocculation and formation
of aggregates,
• Increases the availability of phosphorous and molybdenum.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
• Low Lands
• In Zimbabwe soils with high ESP>9 within the first 80cm depth
have been classified as sodic soils ,
• Generally the soils are dry, compact, alkaline and poorly drained,
• These soils are derived from granite rich feldspars rich in Sodium
and under wet conditions clay particles repel one another
(deflocculation ).
• This impedes water flow but promotes clay movement. Due to clay
movement, erosion of surface layer occurs , leading to bare ground
devoid of vegetation in some places,
• The most common vegetation types on these areas are bush
savannah and grasses ,
• The major problems in these areas are sodicity and salinity,
• Sodicity causes unstable soil structure which inhibits drainage and
leaching.
• In addition soils are hard and compact leading to poor rooting
conditions and poor workability.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont.
Wetlands
• An important but fragile resources commonly
found in low lying areas
LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED
Land-use Impacts on watersheds
• Result form these and other anthropogenic
activities;
– Residential Activities e.g uncontrolled dumping
– Municipal Sources e.g raw or partially treated sewage
– Construction e.g. Roads and dams
– Mining Operations
– Industrial activities
– Agriculture
– Forestry Practices
– Recreation
LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED
• Potential Problems Associated with Watersheds
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Flooding
Unstable Slopes / Land Slides
Erosion from Denuded Land
Deficient Water Supplies
Energy Shortage
Food Shortage
Poor Quality Drinking Water
Polluted Streams / Reduced Fishing
Sedimentation of Navigation Tracks.
Timber Shortage (for Dwelling Purposes)
Etc.
LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED
Watershed Degradation
• It is a long term reduction in the quantity and quality of water resources and other
natural resources such vegetation and soil due to anthropogenic and natural
factors.
• There is a clear distinction between watershed degradation and land degradation.
Land degradation concerns the reduction in the productivity of land and may cause
degradation of watersheds
• Anthropogenic Causes of Watershed Degradation
• Overgrazing ,
• Over Cultivation,
• Land clearing
• Poor waste disposal systems,
• Facilitating or allowing the Invasion of alien plants, etc,.
• Overgrazing and compaction of soils occur when stocking rates exceed the capacity
of the relevant area to sustainably support the number of animals. This leads to
reduction in the vegetation cover and compaction of soil through trumping which
leads to soil erosion.
• Other effects of overgrazing are changes in soil structure, decrease in abundance of
perennial grasses, shrub encroachment, decreasing quantity and quality of forage,
reduction in palatable and nutritious plant species.
LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED
• Deforestation
• It is caused by land clearing for cultivation, bush fires, timber and firewood
harvesting and development of settlements and infrastructure. It is a major
cause of watershed degradation in Southern Africa.
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• Cultivation
• Cultivated lands are without any vegetation cover at the beginning of the
rain season. Without adequate soil conservation measures, soils are
susceptible to erosion. Excessive erosion may impair water quality and
reduce the capacity of streams to store and convey water.
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• Alien Species Invasion
• The invasion of alien plant species along rivers or riparian zones is a
problem of particular concern in Southern Africa. The major concern over
alien plants is their effects on water resources. Their invasion will alter the
water balance in the watershed; e.g. rates of transpiration are altered.
LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED
• Extent and Severity of Watershed Degradation
• It is difficult to quantify the extent and severity
because there are no universally accepted measures
or classification guidelines.
• Middleton and David (1992)’s Classification of
Watershed Degradation Severity and Extent
– Stable- No evidence of degradation,
– Low Degradation – Top soil has been reduced which reduces
agricultural production potential, but restoration is possible,
– Moderate to high- This would require major improvement
in land use practices in order to restore the degraded land.
Agricultural production potential has been greatly reduced,
– Very high Degradation- It is not possible to restore the land
without major restoration work.
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LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED
Soil Degradation
FAO Definition of Soil degradation: It is a process that lowers the current and or the
potential capability of a soil to produce goods and services.
Soil degradation is the form of erosion that occurs under natural conditions but improper
management of land resources aggravates it. Although there is little precise information on
soil degradation in Zimbabwe, there are sufficient indicators of erosion on farms and
elsewhere. These include low and unsustainable crop yields and grazing, increased siltation
of rivers, eutrophication, and reduction of dams’ lifespan. The distribution of excessive soil
erosion is more related to human activities than to natural variability. Average soil loss on
commercial farms has been estimated to be 15tons/ha/year on croplands and 3 tons /ha /yr
on grazing lands. For communal lands, the averages are 50 tons/ha/yr and 75tons/ha/yr on
croplands and grazing lands respectively.
Degradation is particularly severe in shallow sandy soils where the plants are shallow rooted
and nutrients are concentrated in the thin surface layers. Such soils in the semi arid areas
are usually low in organic matter content. They are prone to crusting and resist cultivation
and water infiltration.
Some of the major causes of soil degradation are; over cultivation, Poor tillage practices,
stream bank cultivation, overgrazing and removal of ground cover such as crop residues and
trees. Other causes are monoculture and excessive tillage especially of vleis or wetlands.
The unseen economic burden of this erosion is enormous and with continued degradation
will eventually have a severe impact on the availability of farming lands.
LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED
Symptoms of soil degradation
• Loss of nutrients
• Yield Decline. There is negative exponential relationship between erosion
in tons per hectare per year and yield in t/ha/yr. There are large
incremental losses in yield due to a small increase in erosion.
• Gullies. Formation of gullies is a sign that erosion is taking place/. Gullies
make land preparations difficult and unsafe with normal drainage and
stream flow.
• Loss of rain water due to run off. - This is very significant in semi- areas
where vegetation cover is very poor.
• Depositional effects.- Eroded soil deposited elsewhere causes problems
such as siltation of rivers , dams and irrigation channels for examples.
• Eutrophication- Poisoning of water supplies by runoff, washing away of
pesticides, herbicides, fertilisers, industrial waste into water bodies such
as rivers, lakes and dams.
LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED
FAO Classification of Soil Degradation
• Physical degradation
• It is related to the decline in soil structure leading to crusting, compaction, excessive overland flow and
accelerated erosion.
• Depending on soil properties and terrain characteristics, sheet erosion can turn into gully erosion and other
forms of mass movement.
• High soil temperature can also accentuate soil physical degradation by affecting soil structure and rate of
several processes within the soil.
• Physical degradation is also aggravated by drastic changes in the hydrological cycle and by deforestation and
intensive agricultural activities.
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• Chemical degradation
• Included under this category are leaching, acidification, salinisation, sodification, eutrophication and chemical
toxicities.
• Disruptions in the N, P,C cycles lead to chemical degradation in soils ,
• The most important form of chemical degradation is acidification due to depletion of bases e.g. (Ca, Mg, K) and
accumulation of H+ and Al+ at the exchange sites.
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• Biological Degradation
• Reduction in the quantity and quality of soil organic matter and biotic activity and species diversity of soil fauna
are important forms of biological degradation.
• Land use and soil – crop management systems with adverse effects on soil fauna accentuate biological
degradation.
• Other causes of Biological degradation include exotic species invasions, deforestation and loss of biodiversity.
LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED
Watershed Deterioration Consequences
• Low Productivity- agriculture, grasslands, forestsreduction in biomass
• Declining of groundwater levels• Siltation of reservoirs, lakes, channels, etc.
• Frequent floods and droughts
• Land degradation and erosion
• Water quantity and quality problems
• Poverty – economic and social problems
The challenge of getting the Watershed
Management projects accepted by
stakeholders
• This mostly arises from the long gestation period and difficulty in
perceiving project benefits.
• Some watershed projects may have short term effects, but most
watershed projects have long term impacts, some of which may be
difficult to evaluate or even perceive.
• Soil erosion, for example, is a slow process in many places and the
benefits of arresting it may not be recognized easily.
• Recharging groundwater, stabilizing hillsides through vegetative
cover, and increasing soil moisture and organic matter all take
time.
• As a result, it is difficult to know what conditions would have
prevailed in the absence of project interventions.
• Perceiving benefits is particularly difficult where interventions do
not raise productivity but merely prevent gradual degradation.
Factors determining the success of
watershed management projects
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Whether or not a project achieves its objectives depends not only on watershed activities
but also a variety of other factors. These may include:
Local agro-climatic conditions,
Land tenure arrangements,
People’s willingness and ability to work together to devise arrangements to share benefits
and costs
Infrastructure and market conditions.
As a result, it can be difficult to pinpoint the specific contribution of a watershed project in
improving land management, and it can be difficult to compare across projects.
Even if impacts are perceptible, it is difficult to assess the economic value of the numerous
potential project benefits that do not enter the market.
These include such environmental and natural resource improvements as greater abundance
and wider diversity of natural flora and fauna, higher groundwater levels, and lower risk of
landslides and flooding, etc.
There is therefore a great need for stakeholder awareness raising on the benefits of
watershed management programs if these programs are to successfully take off in a given
area.
This awareness is required even at policy level where institutions and frameworks need to
be put in place to facilitate watershed management on the ground.
STRATEGIES FOR INTEGRATED WATERSHED
RESOURCES CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
These include
• Strategies for Soil Conservation and Management
• Strategies for Water Resources Conservation and
Management
• Strategies for Plant and Animal Conservation and
Management
• Strategies for conservation and utilisation of other
natural resources e.g. minerals
• Land use planning and land capability classification
Strategies for Soil Conservation and
Management
• Basically there two main approaches to soil
conservation; namely the soil erosion prevention
approach and the eroded land rehabilitation
approach.
• The former involves the use of practices and
techniques which maintain erosion rates at
minimum levels.
• The other approach deals with the restoration of
the land that is already degraded.
• In both approaches, biological, mechanical and
traditional measures can be used.
Mechanical Control
• Contour ridges and storm drains – They are very effective in
controlling and diverting run off.
• Terracing - breaking slopes into flat areas separated by
steep sides. Terracing retards runoff and encourages
deposition thereby reducing soil erosion and increasing the
availability of moisture for plant growth especially in semi
arid and arid areas.
• Ploughing along contours or across the slope.
• Tied ridging
• Use of mechanical structures such as stones ,tree branches
or sand bag pitching across gullies to trap organic matter
encouraging siltation and also facilitating vegetation growth
which further binds the soil and reduce erosion.
• Use of gabions which are baskets usually made of wire
netting filled with stones used to block gullies.
• Infiltration ditches.
Biological Control
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Grass strips
Cover crops,
Agro forestry,
Reforestation.
Wind breaks
Strip cropping,
Contour cropping
Land fertilisation,
Mulching,
Cultural and Indigenous Methods
Cultural Methods
• These are a combination of mechanical and biological soil and water
conservation measures.
• Examples are mulch ripping, crop rotations and inter cropping.
Indigenous Methods
• These are methods that evolved over time through passing on and sharing
of knowledge and experiences by local people from one generation to
another.
• An example of these methods is mixing of several crops in one field. This
discourages runoff and erosion.
• Advantages of these methods include the spreading of risk thereby
increasing chances of a better harvest and increased food supply through
mixed cropping.
• They are also regarded as cheap and efficient in the utilisation of pieces of
land.
• One drawback of these methods is that they are suitable and practical
mostly for subsistence farming.
• They were also at one point regarded as backward and uncivilised.
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Strategies for Water Resources
Conservation
and
Management
The environmental importance of water makes it one of the most indispensible natural
resources. According to Mukwada (2000), Water has both direct and indirect importance to
a variety of sectors, including;
Forestry,
Agriculture,
Fishing and aquaculture,
Mining,
Recreation and
Industry
Domestic use
There is widespread failure to understand the impact of development on water resources.
According to IUCN/UNEP/WWF cited in Mukwada (2000);
Our use of water resources is creating a crisis for much of the world. Global water
withdrawals are believed to have increased 35 fold during the past three centuries and are
still increasing.
As demand for water increases, the average water consumption per capita has declined
remarkably in densely populated regions. Consequently, competition among water users is
fast growing and problems of water scarcity have already started to affect some
communities.
Because of the above mentioned reasons, there is need to conserve and use sustainably the
available water resources in our watersheds. To achieve this, the Integrated Water Resources
Management (IWRM) approach has to be used in the management of water resources.
Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM)
• It is a process which promotes the coordinated
development and management of water, land and
related resources, in order to maximise the resultant
economic and social welfare in an equitable manner
without compromising the sustainability of vital
ecosystems. (Global Water Partnership, 2000)
• This approach ensures equitable, efficient, economic
and sustainable utilisation and management of water
resources. Water needs for the environment are also
considered in this approach.
• This approach will also facilitate the following:
Strategies for Water Resources
Conservation and Management Cont.
• Development of Water Management Master Plans
• To ensure that water resources are efficiently and sustainably used, the
development of water resources, distribution networks, storage facilities
and allocation programmes should be properly co-ordinated through the
development of master plans. The master plans could be at any of the
following levels;
• Regional, National, watershed, municipality, district,
• However the plans should be well linked and co-ordinated at these levels;
an integrated approach should be used in master plan development.
• Regional and International Co-Operation on Trans-boundary Rivers and
International Water Sources
• This can be beneficial in the following areas;
• Pollution control,
• Water abstraction,
• Scientific Management.
Strategies for Water Resources
Conservation and Management Cont.
• Some strategies for water resources conservation and management are
given below. These approaches are complemented by soil and plant
conservation strategies.
• Water Harvesting
• This technique involves the trapping of rain water and its storage. Some of
the basic methods of harvesting water are as follows;
• Construction of dams to impound streams and rivers,
• Diversion of water from small streams to the fields through the use of
earth ridges,
• Inter-basin transfers e.g using tunnels and canals
• Collection of rain water from roof tops by gutters and leading to storage
tanks
• Use of water collection pavements which can be lined or unlined. The run
off generated is also lead to storage tanks,
• Use of desalinisation plants and phosphate stripping plants to convert saline
sea water into fresh water. This is especially helpful in regions of water
scarcity but is expensive,
Strategies for Water Resources
Conservation and Management Cont.
• Water recycling
• Involves the reclamation of waste water from
municipalities’ sewerage plants, bathrooms and
kitchens.
•
• Use of legislation and government policy
• In order to ensure equitable access to water and its
efficient allocation, regulations and laws are often
promulgated so as to control the manner in which
water resources are used and managed. Examples are
The revised Zimbabwe water act of 1998, The ZINWA
Act , and The Environmental Management Act of
2000.
Strategies for Water Resources
Conservation and Management Cont.
• Awareness Campaigns and Educational Programmes
• The attitude of viewing water as a ‘free good’ or ‘limitless resource’ needs
to be dispelled through widespread and intensive awareness campaigns
and educational programmes. The following should be given attention;
• Communities should be provided with basic information about the link
between water availability and the water cycle. This information should be
made readily available at grass roots level,
• Schools , colleges, news media including newspapers, television, radio and
also libraries can be used as agents for dissemination of information
about water management programmes ,
• The attitude of the public should be changed so that less water is used for
non- essential uses such as watering of ornamental gardens, filling of
swimming and ornamental pools ,
• Primary health institutions should be actively involved in imparting
knowledge about the relationship between health and pollution, hygiene
as well as sanitation,
• Communities should be made aware of the role and importance of
wetlands and aquatic ecosystems in the hydrological cycle as well as the
means to preserve them.
Strategies for Water Resources Conservation
and Management Cont.
• Research and Data Collection
• Research and collection of scientific data on the hydrological cycle, water
utilisation and management, pollution and related environmental consequences
should be carried out.
• If possible, collected and processed data should be made readily available to
planners, water users and other stakeholders.
• Training
• In order to build a watershed / nation’s capacity to manage its water resources
effectively, its citizens, especially water users, and planners should be trained in
water management skills. The areas that should be covered include;
• Development of water sources,
• Conservation and sustainable water use,
• Linkages between water availability and the environment, and
• Collection and analysis of data on water resources.
• Planning and Designing
• Appropriate planning and designing, ranging from dam construction to the laying
of sewers and irrigation schemes construction should be done so as to increase
efficiency and minimise wastages.
Strategies for Plant and Animal
Conservation and Management
• Setting up Protected Areas
• Protected areas include wildlife and forest reserves where conservation
or preservation of plant and animal species is the main activity. In order
to successfully implement this strategy measures must be taken
comprising the ;
• Setting up of sound, legal and administrative infrastructure for
sustainable management of biological species.
• Development of a national and watershed plan for ensuring proper
administration of protected areas,
• Involvement of local people in the formulation and development of both
national policy on bio diversity and the actual conservation of bio
diversity,
• Involvement of locals or indigenous people in the day to day
management of protected areas and directing any returns from such
areas to them so that their communities directly benefit from the
conservation of biological natural resources,
• Careful land use planning to prevent the fragmentation of protected
areas.
Strategies for Plant and Animal
Conservation and Management cont.
• Adopting a collective approach to plant and animal conservation
• This provides the following advantages;
• Efforts of national and international agencies, including government and
NGOs are fully co-ordinated,
• Restrictions on shipping and trade of plants and animals can become
easier to monitor, consequently CITES (Convention on International Trade
on Endangered Species) regulations become easier to enforce.
• Conflicts are minimised where transboundary biological reserves
particularly wildlife reserves, exist,
• Ecological catastrophes , including those which often arise from adverse
environmental conditions such as droughts and outbreak of diseases ,
can be avoided as inter-agency co-operation ensures easy translocation
of wildlife and enforcement of quarantine regulations,
• Information, expertise and technology related to conservation can be
exchanged more easily,
• Policing of transboundary reserves such as game reserves becomes more
effective.
Strategies for Plant and Animal
Conservation and Management cont.
• Training and research in management of bio-diversity
• This should be done for the following reasons;
• The distribution status and general behaviour of biological species and
ecosystems should be researched upon,
• Data should be gathered about the impact of humans on species and
ecosystems , as well as the relationships between species and species and
the natural environment,
• The role of modern scientific knowledge and the importance of indigenous
technical knowledge in biological conservation should be established,
• Managers of biodiversity should receive adequate training in both aerial
and ground census techniques, valuation of biological resources, advanced
methods of monitoring the state of biological resources- including remote
sensing ,
• For the purposes of management of biodiversity wildlife managers should
be trained to develop effective data storage systems such as GIS and
receive training in the management of databases,
Strategies for Plant and Animal
Conservation and Management cont.
• Conjunctive use of in-situ and ex-situ conservation
measures.
• In-situ conservation refers to the conservation of
plants or animals in their natural habitats. Ex-situ
conservation involves the translocation of species
from their natural, usually degraded, and endangered
habitats, into preserves such as zoos, for animals and
botanic gardens and herbariums for plants.
• Sustainable utilisation of bio-diversity
• This depends on the ability to assess stocks and the
productive potential of the exploited species
populations and ecosystems so as to limit use within
the potential.
Strategies for Plant and Animal
Conservation and Management cont.
• Supporting Community based natural resources management
programmes
• To facilitate the success of community based conservation programmes
certain conditions must be met, including;
• Granting of property rights to resource users. This acts as an incentive
for conservation,
• Other incentives which local communities should obtain from
participating in natural resources conservation are;
• Shares obtained from entrance fees to protected areas,
• Proceeds from fines paid by illegal wildlife users,
• Compensation for wildlife damages which arise in the protected areas
that fall under their jurisdiction as a result of development programmes,
• Exemptions from taxes for distinguished conservation works,
• Access to natural resources biodiversity products such as meat and fruit,
• Assistance granted to the community by development agencies,
Strategies for Plant and Animal
Conservation and Management cont.
• According to IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991) cited in Mukwada
(2000), governments , development agencies and conservation
organisations should;
– Integrate rural development with conservation and sustainable use
of biological resources,
– Provide a direct, immediate, legally guarantied and sustainable
economic return to communities, which participate in biological
conservation,
– Encourage conservation groups to use indigenous species, which
they have sufficient knowledge about,
– Enhance the capacity of local authorities through financial support
and training so that they can adequately promote community based
conservation programmes.
• The Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous
Resources (CAMPFIRE) is an example of community based
conservation programmes.
Strategies for Plant and Animal
Conservation and Management cont.
• Improved methods of resource harvesting
• These include;
• Selective cutting and strip cutting of trees as
opposed to clear cutting,
• Harvesting all parts of trees,
• Development techniques which enable the full
utilisation of all the by- products of plants and
animals. In Zimbabwe for e.g, sawdust can now be
compacted into fuel briquettes or chip board,
• Encouraging plants and animals to mature before
they are harvested. This practice promotes the
maintenance of stock since plants and animals are
allowed to reproduce before they are harvested.
Strategies for Plant and Animal
Conservation and Management cont.
• Replacement of destroyed or harvested resources
 This can be done through;
 Encouraging breeding of animals,
 Promoting aforestation and reforestation
• Promotion of traditional methods of agriculture and wildlife
management
 There are many approaches, which allow economic development and
wildlife to co-exist.
 Among them are agro forestry and the practice of pastoral farming
along the margins of forest reserves.
 Examples of types of agro forestry include woodlots, Home gardens
(e.g. fruit trees and herbs), wind breaks, contour vegetation strips,
hedge rows, and roadside trees.
• Strengthening the existing conventions on biodiversity e.g.
CITES
• Enhancement of global co-operation
Strategies for Plant and Animal
Conservation and Management cont.
• Strategies for conservation and utilisation of other
natural resources e.g. minerals
• Strategies for the conservation and sustainable
utilisation of these resources need also to be put in
place to ensure that the watershed management plan
is all inclusive of all natural resources in the
watershed.
• Land use planning and land capability classification
• It is an important aspect of watershed management
as it forms the basis for the production of watershed
management plans.
• It is not going to be covered in this module as it is
covered in other modules.
DATA SOURCES FOR WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT:
• Reports & Publications Reports
– Water Consumption
– Evapotranspiration
– Rainfall
– Stream flow
– Groundwater
– Water Quality
– Population
– Livestock
DATA SOURCES FOR WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT Cont.:
• Analog Maps and Satellite Images
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Agro-Climate
Agro-Ecology
Soils
Admin Boundaries
Topography
Social Infrastructure
Economic Infrastructure
Land Use
• Digital Satellite Data
• Digital Map Data
• Digital Tabular Data
DATA SOURCES FOR WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT Cont.:
Data acquisition and management
Mostly involves
• Extraction of data from existing sources such as
reports, maps, images, photos etc,
• Monitoring,
• Measurement,
• Data storage and maintenance(hard copy files, and
digital storage),
• GIS data manipulation and analysis, Remote sensing
TOOLS AND SKILLS FOR WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT
Water Assessment: Quality and Quantity
– Water Quality Monitoring
•
•
•
•
•
•
Temperature
pH
Dissolved Oxygen and Biological Oxygen Demand
Nutrients
Pathogens
Turbidity
– Water Quantity
•
•
•
•
Water Resource Assessment
Run off estimation- GIS based modelling, Rational formula, etc.
Hydrograph Analysis
Water yield determination
TOOLS AND SKILLS FOR WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT Cont.
• Flood control/prevention
• Vegetation cover assessments
• Biological Monitoring Methods
– Species Indicators
– Biological Integrity
– Habitat Index
– Land Use Index
• Land Use Planning
TOOLS AND SKILLS FOR WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT Cont.
• Watershed Delineation
• Participation Principles
• Rapid Rural Appraisals and Participatory Rural
Appraisals,
• Soil Loss Estimation; - SLEMSA, USLE, Wind
Equation.
• Environmental Impact Assessments,
DELINEATION OF WATERSHED
BOUNDARIES
• An understanding of the various characteristics of the
watershed requires appropriate knowledge of its
delineation.
• Delineation of a watershed is essential as the shape of
the watershed surface determines how water will flow
across it.
• Most commonly adopted techniques for watershed
delineation uses data from:
• Topographical maps
• Aerial photography.
• Satellite imagery or Remote Sensing.
DELINEATION OF WATERSHED BOUNDARIES
Cont.
Use of Topographical Maps (Toposheets)
• These are maps which show spatial distribution of
topographic attributes which can be used to map various
aspects of a watershed using relatively simple techniques.
• These maps provide primary but most accurate data which
acts as basic inputs for the formulation of any further
advanced methods of water shed deliniation.
• These maps provide information of both physical and cultural
features existing in the area by the use of symbols.
• Accuracy of interpretation of data from toposheets , needs
not only the knowledge of the symbol but also it is required
that the interpreter should have adequate prior information
about the topography of the area.
• Some of the symbols and their associated features are
described below.
DELINEATION OF WATERSHED BOUNDARIES
Cont.
Use of Topographical Maps ( Cont.)
 The blue lines drawn on toposheets are conservative representation of
stream network as they only represent permanently flowing or major
streams. In arid regions, where ephemeral streams dominate, these are
depicted by dark or black lines.
 Contours are represented by brown lines. An effective understanding of this
symbol can solve many issues such as whether the surface is an upslope,
valley or a flat terrain.
 Once an interpreter has significant knowledge of contour patterns, he will
be able to draw the flow direction of streams in a watershed.
 The basic drawback of contour information is that it fails to provide
information about heights of areas between contours. In this case one has
to see the spot heights and depend upon interpolation techniques.
• A watershed therefore can be delineated using information on contour
patterns, spot heights and stream patterns and their sources.
DELINEATION OF WATERSHED BOUNDARIES
Cont.
Aerial Photographs
• They provide a three dimensional view of an area.
• The photographs are obtained through both photointerpretation and photogrammetry.
• Aerial photographs also known as stereograms and
are placed under stereoscopes.
• When the interpreter looks through the lenses, a
three dimensional view of the terrain can be seen.
• Though the technique is prone to error, it is one of
the most reliable techniques for the smooth
delineation of watershed boundaries.
DELINEATION OF WATERSHED BOUNDARIES Cont.
Remote Sensing
• Interpretation of satellite images requires skill because the features
depicted exhibit different tone, pattern, texture and resolution.
• As an example, for watershed delineation, Indian satellite images IRS IA and
IRS images having resolutions of 72.5m (LISS 1) and 36.25m (LISS II) are
used.
• Landforms like hills and high relief features can easily be recognised from
these images.
• Streams, both ephemeral and perennial can be easily interpreted as these
are linear features with distinct signatures (dull white and dark blue).
• GIS and Remote Sensing provide tools to delineate watersheds using
computer models.
• Though toposheets provide basic information about physiographic
attributes, sometimes the information has to be interpolated.
• This can easily and speedily be done by a GIS.
• Using hydrological models in GIS (e.g. ILWIS) which have the ability for
acquisition, storage and presentation of topographic information, one can
extract stream network using Digital elevation models (DEMs).
• Other attributes such as slope and catchment area can also be derived from
DEMs.
PUBLIC/ STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION
• Watershed Management Project planning and
implementation should ensure effective and well-timed
public/ stakeholder participation and consultation.
• All interested citizens and interest groups have the right to
express their opinions, both while a program is being
prepared and when it is being implemented.
• Public consultation and participation can be employed at
virtually every stage of a project but is especially important
at project inception.
• The reasons why the public must be involved include:
 To ensure cooperation and support of the stake holders can
be obtained,
 To inform stakeholders on projects
 To allow for presentation of views, concerns and values
 Local inhabitants may provide local expertise and
knowledge;
PUBLIC/ STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION
 Public participation may help to identify the important
issues or concerns determining the scope of the project;
 Local inhabitants may propose additional project
alternatives;
 Public participation ensures that possible later conflicts will
be avoided;
 Positive public opinion might serve as a useful additional
argument when requesting a development consent;
 Public participation ensures the openness of the project
implementation process.
• Public participation should be as continuous as possible to
avoid the loss of interest from the participating parties.
• Clear rules and procedures for public participation should be
established, e.g. who can to participate, by which means and
on which terms.
PUBLIC/ STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION
Levels of public participation
• Informing (one way flow of information)
• Consulting (two way flow of information, opportunities for
the public to express views)
• (Full) Participating (public involved in decision-making)
Principles for successful public participation
• provide sufficient and relevant information
• allow sufficient time to get acquainted with relevant
information and discuss
• allow sufficient time to present views
• provide responses to issues/ problems raised
• choose correct public participation methods and times of
events to suit stakeholders
Stakeholders in Natural Resources Use and Management (Adapted from: Mukwada, 2000)
Stakeholder
Role in Natural Resource Management
Government Ministries and
Departments
-
Quasi- government
Departments including local
authorities and parastatals
Civil organisations and Non
Governmental Organisations
Inter-governmental
organisations & international
development agencies
Industrialists, Workers and
Trade Unions
Financial Institutions
Farmers
Universities, Scientists and
Technologists
-
Policy formulation,
Enforcement of legislation
Financial support
Co-ordination of natural resource management plans
Mobilization of public Support and education of the public on principles of sustainable
development.
Lobbying governments and the public on sustainable development and sound NRM,
Financial support for research and development
Provision of support for capacity building in natural resources management
Financial support for research and development
Management of waste
Protection of workplace from pollution and resource destruction
Development of policies which foster sustainable resource exploitation
Promotion of responsible and ethically sound management of natural resources, pollution
control, health, environmental safety.
Provision of financial support for natural resource management
Development of environmentally sound farming practices and technologies,
Development of low input and low energy technologies
Support of research in natural resource management.
Formation of advisory groups on resource management,
Promotion of environmental education and research,
Creating forums for sharing researched information and knowledge,
Lobbying farmers, industrialists and governments to pursue sustainable development options
and natural resource management.
Promotion of sustainable development by fostering eco-development and indigenous
Local communities and
traditional leaders
Women and Children; ordinary - Day to day use and management of natural resources and the environment through the
community members
regulation of:
- Firewood collection, Water collection, Tilling of land
- Pottery, Basketry, Fishing, Hunting ,etc.
TOOLS AND FOR WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT Cont.
• SOIL LOSS ESTIMATION
– See separate hand out.
• PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA)
– See separate hand out.
• ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
– See separate hand out.
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN
Contents of a Watershed Plan Document
• The exact contents of the plan vary from watershed to
watershed depending on its characteristics and the
focus and objectives of the watershed managers and
community among other factors. However, the
document generally includes the following:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Executive Summary
An Overview of the Watershed
Existing Conditions/Issues in the watershed
The Actual Watershed Management Plan
Watershed Management Planning Process
Elements of Plan
Appendices
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN Cont.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Executive Summary
Purpose of the management plan
Summarises the contents of the plan document
An Overview of the Watershed
Location and description
History and background
Agreements and regulations
Natural features
Non-natural features
Natural resources uses
Economic activities in the watershed
Include a Map if possible
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN Cont.
• Existing Conditions/Issues in the watershed
• Highlighting issues that threaten the integrity of
the watershed e.g.; existence of
• Farming activities
• Mining activities
• Timber harvesting
• Overgrazing
• Deforestation,
• Land clearing
• Include a Map if possible
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN Cont.
• The Actual Watershed Management Plan
• Mission statements e.g. for;
• The local authority (ies) in which the water shed is
located,
• The watershed mission statement
• Watershed Management Planning Process
• Process and participants
• Watershed resources management and planning
principles
• Public demands and expectations
• Elements of Plan
• For the identified Issues have;
• Goals and recommendations
• Actions and implementation plans
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN Cont.
Appendices
• Additional uses to be considered
• Alternatives for managing and controlling resource use
• rules and regulations governing resources use and
management
• Issues (from public open house)
• Scientific names of species in the Watershed
• Organizations and acronyms
• Summary of Comments: Public Open House Meetings, etc
•
• There is a separate handout on an example of a watershed
management plan.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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•
•
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AND
REFERENCES
Randhir, T.O. 2007. Watershed Management: Issues and Approaches. IWA Publishing, London.
Khan M.A. 2002. Watershed Management for Sustainable Agriculture. Agrobios, India.
Wani, S.P. et al. 2003. Farmer-Participatory Integrated Watershed Management: Adarsha Watershed, Kothapally India. SAT eJournal August 2006 | Volume 2 | Issue 1|. ejournal.icrisat.org
FAO (Undated). Fact Sheet: Participatory Watershed Management
Central Board of Irrigation and Power, India (1998) Proceedings of the International Conference on
Watershed Management and Conservation; New Delhi, India 8-10 December 1998.
Clear Creek County Open Space Commission, 2006. Beaver Brook Watershed Management Plan
Rouge River National Wet Weather Demonstration Project, 1998. User's Manual: Watershed Management Model Version
4.1Soil Loss Estimation.
Farrington J et al. (1999). Participatory Watershed Development: challenges for the twenty-first century; Oxford University
Press.
Jan de Graaff (1996) The Price of Soil Erosion: an economic evaluation of soil conservation and watershed development.
FAO/Faculty of Forestry (Thailand) (1996) Watershed Management for the Future; Volume 6 of the proceedings of the
FORTROP’96 International Conference, Bangkok, Thailand 25-28 November 1996.
FAO Publication (2000) Developing Participatory and Integrated Watershed Management: A Case Study of the FAO/Italy Interregional Project for Participatory Upland Conservation and Development (PUCD).
Class Notes: Introduction Watershed Management. Samarakoon, L. Geoinformatics Centre, AIT/ JAXA
Gamal, A and Ibrahim, Y. 1994. Decision Support System for Integrated Watershed Management. Colorado State University.
ASAE. 1982. Hydrological Modelling of Small Watersheds.
ASCE. 1975. Watershed Management.
Black, A.M.1991. Watershed Hydrology. Prentice Hall, London.
Michael, AM.1992. Irrigation Engineering. Vikas Publications.
Rajora, R. 1998. Integrated Watershed Management-Principles and Practice. John Wiley and Sons, London.
Purandare, A.P, Jaiswal, A.K. 1995. Watershed Developement in India. NIRD, Hyderrabad.
Vir Singh, Raj. 2000. Watershed Planning and Management. Yash Publishing House, Bikaner.
Debarry, P.A. 2004. Watershed Processes, Assessments and management. Wiley, London.
NPTEL Video: Watershed Management. Department of Civil Engineering, IIT, Bombay, India. http://www.civil.iitb.ac.in. Date
Downloaded: 27-7-2012.
The Ten Towns Great Swamp Watershed Management Committee Fact Sheet. F. X. Browne, Inc. Watershed Management
Consultants. Date Downloaded: 4 June 201.
http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/watershed
http://www.watersheds.com/
http://iucn.org/themes/sui/index.html