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Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY Environmental Toxicology is a comprehensive introductory textbook designed for undergraduate and graduate students of this subject. The text is arranged in four tiers and covers most aspects of environmental toxicology, from the molecular to the ecosystem level. Early chapters deal with basic and advanced concepts, methods, and approaches for environmental toxicology. The next tier of chapters discusses the environmental toxicology of individual substances or groups of substances. The third tier of chapters addresses complex issues that incorporate and integrate many of the concepts, approaches, and substances covered in the first two tiers. The fourth part includes chapters on risk assessment, rehabilitation, and regulatory toxicology. A final chapter dicusses areas of study for current and future emphasis. Throughout the book concise case studies from Europe, the United Kingdom, and North America illustrate the issues. Each chapter has a comprehensive list of references and further reading, as well as student exercises that are designed to reinforce the subject matter. There is an extensive glossary and a list of abbreviations and acronyms. Environmental Toxicology is primarily a textbook for undergraduate and graduate students in environmental toxicology, environmental chemistry, ecotoxicology, applied ecology, environmental management, and risk assessment. It will also be valuable for specialists in ecology, environmental science, and chemistry, for example, practitioners in the metals and energy industries and in agriculture. David A. Wright is a professor at the Center for Environmental Science at the University of Maryland and Director of the Chesapeake Bay Ambient Toxicity Program for the state of Maryland. Professor Wright has published more than 100 journal articles primarily on the physiology of ionic regulation and the uptake, toxicology, and physiology of trace metals in aquatic organisms. In recent years he has developed an interest in the dispersion and control of non-indigenous species. He has served on numerous review panels at the state and federal level and has testified in many court cases and hearings concerned with environmental pollution. He holds a DSc degree from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Pamela Welbourn is a professor at Queen’s University, previously a professor at Trent University, and former director of the Institute for Environmental Studies and a professor at the University of Toronto. Professor Welbourn has published more than 150 articles in scientific journals including Nature, Environmental Science and Technology, the Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, and Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry and has contributed to ten scholarly books on aspects of the environmental toxicology of inorganic substances. She has served on numerous panels and boards in Canada and the United States, as well as on various public advisory committees. She has also had experience testifying as an expert witness in cases involving environmental contamination. © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information C A M B R I D G E E N V I R O N M E N TA L C H E M I S T RY S E R I E S Series editors: P. G. C. Campbell, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université du Québec, Canada R. M. Harrison, School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, England S. J. de Mora, International Atomic Energy Agency – Marine Environment Laboratory, Monaco Other books in the series: A. C. Chamberlain Radioactive Aerosols M. Cresser and A. Edwards Acidification of Freshwaters M. Cresser, K. Killham, and A. Edwards Soil Chemistry and Its Applications R. M. Harrison and S. J. de Mora Introductory Chemistry for the Environmental Sciences Second Edition S. J. de Mora Tributyltin: Case Study of an Environmental Contaminant T. D. Jickells and J. E. Rae Biogeochemistry of Intertidal Sediments S. J. de Mora, S. Demers, and M. Vernet The Effects of UV Radiation in the Marine Environment © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information Environmental toxicology DAVID A. WRIGHT, PhD, DSc University of Maryland PAMELA WELBOURN, PhD Queen’s University © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, VIC 3166, Australia Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press 2002 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2002 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge Typefaces Times New Roman 10.75/13.5 pt. and Univers System QuarkXPress [BTS] A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Wright, David A., 1948– Environmental toxicology / David A. Wright, Pamela Welbourn. p. cm. – (Cambridge environmental chemistry series; 11) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-521-58151-6 – ISBN 0-521-58860-X (pb.) 1. Environmental toxicology. I. Welbourn, Pamela, 1935– II. Title. III. Series. RA1226 .W75 2001 615.9¢02 – dc21 2001018486 ISBN ISBN 0 521 58151 6 hardback 0 521 58860 X paperback © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information This book is dedicated to Rex Welbourn and Lee Ann Wright for all their support and understanding. © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind: it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of science. Thompson, William (Lord Kelvin). Popular Lectures and Addresses (1841–4). Nowadays, people know the price of everything and the value of nothing. Oscar Wilde, Definition of a Cynic. Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892). © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information Contents 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 Foreword xvii Preface xix Abbreviations xxi Acknowledgements xxv 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 The emergence of environmental toxicology as science 1 The context 1 The historical background: Classical toxicology, ecotoxicology, and environmental toxicology 2 Social aspects: The environmental movement 5 Social aspects: Regulation 9 Education in environmental toxicology 16 The role of technology 16 Questions 18 References 19 Further reading 20 The science of environmental toxicology: Concepts and definitions 21 The development of environmental toxicology 21 2.1.1 An historical perspective on the science of environmental toxicology 21 2.1.2 An evolutionary perspective on environmental toxicology Assessment of toxicity 24 2.2.1 The dose-response 25 2.2.2 The acute toxicity bioassay 31 2.2.3 Subacute (chronic) toxicity assays 31 2.2.4 The relationship between acute and chronic toxicity 33 2.2.5 Statistical considerations 38 2.2.6 Comparative bioassays 43 2.2.7 Sediment toxicity assays 49 Toxicity at the molecular level 50 2.3.1 Carcinogenesis 52 2.3.2 Genotoxicity assays 58 2.3.3 Chromosome studies 59 © Cambridge University Press 21 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information x Contents 2.4 2.5 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 2.3.4 The concept of threshold toxicity 2.3.5 Hormesis 61 2.3.6 Receptors 61 Questions 65 References 66 59 Routes and kinetics of toxicant uptake General considerations 70 Route of toxicant uptake 71 3.2.1 Skin 72 3.2.2 Lungs 73 3.2.3 Gills 74 3.2.4 Digestive system 76 3.2.5 Toxicant uptake by plants 77 Uptake at the tissue and cellular level 78 3.3.1 Toxicokinetics 80 3.3.2 Single-compartment model 81 3.3.3 Two-compartment model 83 3.3.4 Volume of distribution 86 3.3.5 Transporter-mediated transport 87 3.3.6 Lethal body burden (critical body residue) Questions 94 References 95 Further reading 96 Methodological approaches 70 90 97 Introduction 97 The general concepts and principles for biological indicators 100 Tolerance and resistance to potentially toxic substances 106 4.3.1 Some conundrums related to tolerance in the context of environmental assessment 106 4.3.2 Selection for tolerance, mechanisms of tolerance, and potential practical applications of the phenomenon 109 Biological scale 116 4.4.1 Principles and properties of biochemical markers/biochemical indicators 117 4.4.2 Some of the more commonly used groups of biochemical markers 119 4.4.3 Individual species as indicators or monitors 127 4.4.4 Surrogates for ecosystem indicators 142 Community and higher level indicators: The ecological approach to toxicology 143 4.5.1 Interspecies effects of toxic substances 143 4.5.2 Interaction between and among trophic levels as affected by toxic substances 146 4.5.3 Population and community end-points 147 4.5.4 Ecosystem equilibrium. Fact or fiction? 158 Modelling 160 4.6.1 The concepts of modelling 160 4.6.2 Mass balance models 164 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information Contents xi 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 6 6.1 6.2 Some other models for use in environmental toxicology 172 Advantages, limitations, and pitfalls in the modelling for environmental toxicology 173 Examples of methods and approaches for community or higher level responses 174 4.7.1 Enclosures: Microcosms and mesocosms 175 4.7.2 Whole system manipulations 178 The role of technical advances in methods for environmental toxicology 183 Choice of approaches 186 Case studies 190 Case study 4.1 Benthic invertebrate communities in metal-contaminated sites exceeding criteria for acceptable sediment quality 190 Case study 4.2 Biomarkers of organic chemical contamination in fish from Puget Sound 193 Case study 4.3 The effect of coal-ash pollution on bullfrogs: An energy budget approach 196 Case study 4.4 Phytotoxicology assessment for Nanticoke Generating Station: Biological indicators and monitors of air pollution 197 Case study 4.5 Chesapeake Bay – A study of eutrophication and complex trophic interactions 201 Case study 4.6 The use of lentic mesocosms in toxicity testing 202 Case study 4.7 The cadmium spike experiment, Experimental Lakes Area 203 Questions 207 References 209 Further reading 217 Factors affecting toxicity 218 Introduction 218 Biotic factors affecting toxicity 219 5.2.1 Taxonomic group 219 5.2.2 Age/body size 221 Abiotic factors affecting toxicity 221 5.3.1 Temperature 221 5.3.2 pH and alkalinity 224 5.3.3 Salinity 227 5.3.4 Hardness 229 5.3.5 Chemical mixtures 230 5.3.6 Dissolved organic carbon 234 Role of particulates 236 5.4.1 The importance of food 239 Quantitative structure-activity relationships 242 Implications for future environmental regulation 242 Questions 244 References 245 Further reading 248 Metals and other inorganic chemicals 249 Introduction 249 The properties and environmental behaviour of metals and metalloids © Cambridge University Press 253 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information xii Contents 6.2.1 6.2.2 General properties of metals and metalloids 253 The mobilisation, binding, and chemical forms of metals in the environment 254 6.2.3 The biological availability of metals in the environment 256 6.2.4 Approaches for determining the chemical species and availability of metals 262 6.2.5 The persistence of metals in the environment 267 6.2.6 Bioconcentration, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification of metals in the environment 267 6.3 Analytical methods, temporal and spatial distribution of metals and metalloids in the environment 269 6.3.1 Analytical chemistry 269 6.3.2 Historical records 270 6.3.3 Spatial records and source signatures 271 6.4 Mercury 274 6.4.1 The background to environmental concerns for mercury 274 6.4.2 The properties, occurrence, and environmental behaviour of mercury 275 6.4.3 The toxicity of mercury and populations at risk 282 6.4.4 The reservoir problem 287 6.5 Lead 287 6.5.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of lead 287 6.5.2 The environmental transport and behaviour of lead 290 6.5.3 Environmental exposure and toxicity of lead 291 6.6 Cadmium 298 6.6.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of cadmium 298 6.6.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of cadmium 299 6.6.3 The toxicity of cadmium 300 6.7 Copper 301 6.7.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of copper 301 6.7.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of copper 302 6.7.3 The toxicity of copper 302 6.8 Nickel 304 6.8.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of nickel 304 6.8.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of nickel 305 6.8.3 The toxicity of nickel 305 6.9 Selenium 306 6.9.1 The occurrence, sources, and properties of selenium 306 6.9.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of selenium 307 6.9.3 The toxicity of selenium 307 6.10 Phosphorus 308 6.10.1 The occurrence, sources, and behaviour of phosphorus 308 6.10.2 The physiological and ecological behaviour of phosphorus 308 6.11 Fluorine 313 6.11.1 The occurrence, sources, and behaviour of fluorine 313 6.11.2 The toxicity of fluoride 313 6.12 Questions 315 6.13 References 316 6.14 Further reading 319 Appendix: Properties of selected metals and metalloids 319 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information Contents 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Organic compounds xiii 349 The nature of organic compounds 349 7.1.1 Behaviour and transport 353 Pesticides 355 7.2.1 Chlorinated organics 356 7.2.2 Organophosphate pesticides 361 7.2.3 Carbamate pesticides 362 7.2.4 Phenoxyacid herbicides 363 7.2.5 Bipyridilium herbicides 365 7.2.6 Triazine herbicides 365 Polychlorinated biphenyls 366 7.3.1 Chemistry and effects 366 7.3.2 Evidence of decline in environmental PCBs 369 Debenzodioxins and dibenzofurans 370 Organic chemicals as environmental estrogens (endocrine disrupters) 372 7.5.1 Rationale 372 7.5.2 Proposed mechanism for the action of estrogenic compounds 372 7.5.3 Effect of organic chemicals on male reproductive health 375 7.5.4 Environmental influences on breast cancer 376 7.5.5 Peroxisome proliferases 377 7.5.6 Pharmaceuticals in the environment 378 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons 379 Petroleum hydrocarbons 381 Organotins 384 Metabolism of organics 385 7.9.1 Introduction 385 7.9.2 Phase I reactions 386 7.9.3 Important mixed function oxidase reactions 389 7.9.4 Reductions 394 7.9.5 Phase II reactions 395 Environmental mobility of organic compounds 396 Case studies 399 Case study 7.1 Pathology of beluga whales in the St. Lawrence estuary, Quebec, Canada 399 Case study 7.2 Recovery of double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) in the Great Lakes 400 Case study 7.3 Feminisation of fish in English rivers 401 Questions 403 References 405 Ionising radiation 408 Introduction 408 Definitions 409 8.2.1 What is ionising radiation? 409 8.2.2 Units of measurement 412 Effects of radiation at the molecular and cellular level 8.3.1 Molecular interactions 413 8.3.2 Effects of radiation on the immune system Assessment of risk from radiation 416 Sources of radiation 421 © Cambridge University Press 413 415 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information xiv Contents 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 8.5.1 Background radiation 421 8.5.2 Electricity production from nuclear power 422 8.5.3 Radioisotopes of biological importance 427 Ecological effects of radiation 430 Case study 431 Case study 8.1 The Chernobyl accident 431 Questions 433 References 433 Complex issues 435 Introduction and rationale 435 The mining and smelting of metals 436 9.2.1 The issue 436 9.2.2 Processes involved in the extraction and purification of metals 437 9.2.3 Substances of concern that are mobilised or formed and released during mining, smelting, and other purification processes 439 9.2.4 The environmental toxicology of metal mining and smelting 440 Environmental impacts of pulp and paper mills 446 9.3.1 The issue 446 9.3.2 Substances of concern I: Nutrient enrichment from pulp mills 447 9.3.3 Substances of concern II: Chlorinated products of paper pulp 448 9.3.4 The environmental toxicology of mill effluent 449 9.3.5 Mitigation: Means for minimising the impacts of pulp mills 450 Electrical power generation 451 9.4.1 The issue of producing electricity from fossil fuel 451 9.4.2 The issue of producing electricity from nuclear energy 452 9.4.3 The issue of hydroelectric power 458 9.4.4 Socioeconomic considerations 459 Global warming 462 9.5.1 The issue 462 9.5.2 The greenhouse effect 462 9.5.3 Substances of concern: Greenhouse gases and their sources 463 9.5.4 Global climate models 464 Atmospheric pollution 465 9.6.1 The issue 465 9.6.2 Substances of concern: Photochemical oxidants 466 9.6.3 The environmental toxicology of photochemical oxidants 470 9.6.4 Substances of concern: Acidic precipitation 471 9.6.5 The environmental toxicology of acid precipitation 472 Agriculture 474 9.7.1 The issue 474 9.7.2 Substances of concern: Fertilisers 477 9.7.3 The environmental toxicology of fertilisers 478 9.7.4 Substances of concern: Pesticides 483 9.7.5 The environmental toxicology of pesticides 486 Oil extraction, transportation, and processing 487 9.8.1 The issue 487 9.8.2 The environmental toxicology of oil 489 9.8.3 Oil spill legislation and control 493 9.8.4 Use of oil dispersants 493 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information Contents 9.9 9.10 9.11 xv Case study 494 Case study 9.1 The Florida Everglades: A case study of eutrophication related to agriculture and restoration 494 References 495 Further reading 499 10 Risk assessment 10.1 10.2 10.7 10.8 The context and rationale for ecological risk assessment 500 The methodology of ecological risk assessment and risk management 502 10.2.1 Risk assessment 502 10.2.2 Risk management 508 Site-specific risk assessment 508 Dealing with uncertainty 510 Factors triggering risk assessment 511 Case studies 512 Case study 10.1 Risk assessment of the Clark River Superfund site 512 Case study 10.2 The Belle Park Island landfill site, Cataraqui Park, Kingston, Ontario: Site-specific risk assessment 514 Case study 10.3 An environmental risk assessment for ditallow dimethyl ammonium chloride in the Netherlands 516 References 518 Further reading 519 11 Recovery, rehabilitation, and reclamation 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 500 520 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 The context for site contamination and recovery 520 Exposure and hazard 521 Site use 522 Technical approaches 523 11.4.1 Removal of the source of contamination 523 11.4.2 Restriction of site use 525 11.4.3 Reconstruction of the site 526 11.4.4 Removal of the contaminated material 526 11.4.5 On-site containment 527 11.4.6 In situ treatment 527 11.5 Remedial action plans 528 11.6 Responsibilities 529 11.7 Routes for recovery 530 11.8 Recent regulatory approaches to contaminated sites 532 11.9 Case studies 535 Case study 11.1 The Thames Estuary: Compound pollution and recovery 535 Case study 11.2 Lake Erie recovery 538 Case study 11.3 Deacidification trends in Clearwater Lake near Sudbury, Ontario, 1973–1992 540 Case study 11.4 The Inco Mine Tailings reclamation, Sudbury, Canada: Ecosystem reconstruction 542 Case study 11.5 Clean-up of lead-contaminated sites: The Ontario urban clean-up experience 545 11.10 References 547 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information xvi Contents 12 Regulatory toxicology 12.1 12.2 12.3 Introduction 550 Possible legal approaches to the regulation of toxic substances 551 Procedures and policies, including voluntary abatement 553 12.3.1 Types of approach 553 12.3.2 Objectives, standards, and related concepts 556 12.3.3 Risk assessment in a regulatory context 561 12.3.4 Voluntary systems of regulation 562 12.3.5 International considerations: Treaties and informal agreements 565 Definitions 569 12.4.1 Types of law 569 12.4.2 The common law 570 12.4.3 Some general legal terms 571 12.4.4 Terms used in assessment and regulation of toxic substances 571 Federal statutes 587 12.5.1 The United Kingdom and Europe 587 12.5.2 Canada 587 12.5.3 The United States of America 587 Case studies 588 Case study 12.1 European convention on long-range transboundary air pollution 588 Case study 12.2 Implementation of the Basel Convention: Turning back waste from Hungary 588 Questions 589 References 589 Further reading 590 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 550 13 An overall perspective, or where to from here? 13.1 13.2 Introduction 591 Updating risk assessment 592 13.2.1 Expressing toxic action 592 13.2.2 Bioavailability and uptake pathways as management tools 13.2.3 Pathways/vectors of chemical exposure 597 Future paradigm of hazard assessment 600 The question of biological scale 600 Genotoxicity 602 Society and the environment 603 References 605 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 591 596 Glossary 608 Index 621 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information Foreword 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 Environmental Toxicology is a welcome addition to the Cambridge University Press Environmental Chemistry Series. The inclusion of a textbook on toxicology in a series devoted to environmental chemistry might, at first glance, appear surprising. However, as will become evident to the reader, the authors have approached their topic in a truly interdisciplinary manner, with environmental chemistry playing a prominent role in their analysis. Environmental toxicology is a young and dynamic science, as pointed out by the authors in their welcome historical perspective of its development over the past 30+ years. One of the inevitable consequences of the rapid evolution of this area of science has been the scarcity of useful textbooks. Several multiauthored books have appeared in recent years, usually consisting of specialised chapters written by researchers familiar with a specific area of environmental toxicology. The individual chapters in such volumes are often very useful as state-of-the-art reviews, but links between and among chapters are difficult to establish. Environmental Toxicology breaks with this trend and offers a broad and coherent vision of the field, as developed by two senior researchers who have been active in this area of research since its inception in the 1970s. In keeping with the aims of the Environmental Chemistry Series, this book is designed for use in courses offered to senior undergraduates and to graduate students. As university professors, the authors have used much of the material in their own courses, and thus, in a certain sense, the overall approach has already been tested and refined in the classroom. In choosing illustrative examples to include in their treatise, Wright and Welbourn have taken pains to maintain an international perspective – their frequent use of examples from the United Kingdom, Europe, the United States, Canada, and elsewhere should prove invaluable to readers seeking to learn from the scientific and regulatory experience of their global neighbours. Professor Peter G. C. Campbell Université du Quebec INRS INRS-Eau CP 7500 Rue Einstein Ste. Foy, Quebec Canada © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information Preface 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 This book is intended for use as a general text for courses given to intermediate undergraduate students with some basic background in chemistry, biology, and ecology. Graduate students with backgrounds in such traditional disciplines as chemistry, geography, or engineering, who are beginning studies that require an understanding of environmental toxicology, will also find the text useful. Additional readings, beyond those cited in the text, have been provided for those students who wish to take the subject matter further. In common with many university and school texts, the original idea for this book grew from a course that the authors designed and presented. This began in 1989. Since that time, we have modified the material for use in different courses, in both the United States and Canada. Also since that time in environmental toxicology, existing approaches have evolved and new ones have been introduced. Technological advances, particularly in computers and in analytical chemistry and its applications, have facilitated progress. Beginning in the 1970s, but notably over the past decade, a number of excellent essay collections, as well as various texts addressing environmental toxicology, aquatic toxicology, ecotoxicology, and related topics, have been published. We have attempted to incorporate information on most of the significant items of progress, while providing the core and accepted components of the science, and to convey the enthusiasm that we have experienced, and continue to experience, over the subject area. Whether there has been progress in the fundamental understanding and theory of the multidisciplinary subject known as ecotoxicology or environmental toxicology is less easy to determine. A lot depends on progress in other disciplines, some of them still young, notably ecology. Paraphrasing Schuurmann and Markert (1998), ecotoxicology aims to characterise, understand, and predict deleterious effects of chemicals on biological systems. Various definitions have been provided for the term ecotoxicology, but in essence the subject involves the study of sources, pathways, transformations, and effects of potentially harmful chemicals in the environment, including not only their effects on individuals and populations of organisms but also their effects at the ecosystem level. The decision was made for the present text to use the © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information xx Preface more general term environmental toxicology in the title, while attempting in the main text, wherever it was deemed appropriate, to distinguish between this and the more specifically defined ecotoxicology, in Truhaut’s (1975) sense. In 1980, during the Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment Symposium, organized by the American Society for Testing and Materials, Macek stated, “There are unquestionably much more aquatic toxicity data on many more chemicals. However, there has been no real ‘qualitative growth’ in the science. No new and better questions are being asked; there are few new theories and precious little in the way of new scientific truths which have led to a better understanding of unifying concepts in the science” (Boudou and Ribeyre, 1989). This somewhat gloomy statement concerning aquatic toxicology may well still be true in 2001. In our opinion, however, there is sufficient information that is genuinely new and original to stimulate the writing of a basic text that includes some of the still incomplete and controversial components of the science. This book has been organised in an hierarchical manner, generally progressing from the simple to the complex. Following some discussion of the social context from which the science developed, early chapters look at the “tools of the trade”, with definitions, methods, and approaches. The sources, behaviour, fate, and effects of individual contaminants are then treated, as inorganic, organic, and radioactive substances. Some relatively simple case studies have been provided where appropriate to illustrate these earlier chapters. It will be noted that, for the most part, categories such as air pollution and water pollution have not been used as main headings for chapters or sections. This reflects our attitude that even though these compartments of the environment have value for regulatory purposes and possibly for policy formulation, they are often quite artificial in terms of an ecological approach to the science. A number of complex issues were selected for the later chapters, with two major objectives in mind. One was to provide vehicles to integrate a number of the principles of methodology and approaches, and the characteristics of contaminants, which had already been described. The other was to illustrate the nature of real-world issues, in which contaminants do not exist in isolation from other contaminants, preexisting conditions, or the natural complexity and variability of the ecosystem. Chapters on risk assessment and rehabilitation draw on some earlier and by now familiar examples, and regulatory toxicology is addressed by incorporating hazard and risk assessment with reviews of some of the state-of-the-art regulatory approaches. The objective here is to consider some of the philosophy and approaches underlying the regulation of toxic substances and not to provide comprehensive coverage of statutory environmental regulation. David A. Wright. University of Maryland, Center for Environmental Science, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Solomons, Maryland Pamela Welbourn. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, and Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information Abbreviations 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 AAF 2-acetylaminofluorene Ar aryl hydrocarbon (receptor) AHH aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase ALA aminolaevulinic acid ALAD aminolaevulinic acid dehydratase ARNT Ah receptor nuclear translocator ASP amnesic shellfish poisoning ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials ATP adenosine triphosphate AVLS atomic vapour laser separation AVS acid volatile sulphide (see glossary) BSCF biota-sediment concentration factor CCME Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (formerly CREM) CFP ciguatera fish poisoning CTV critical toxicity value CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 subfamilies of the CYP1 gene family of P450 enzymes responsible for transformation of xenobiotics and endogenous substrates (see glossary, cytochrome P 450) CWS Canadian Wildlife Service DDD 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis( p-chlorophenyl) ethane DDE 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis( p-chlorophenyl) ethylene DDT 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis( p-chlorophenyl) ethane DMRP Dredged Material Research Programme DMSO dimethyl sulphoxide DSP diarrhetic shellfish poisoning 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid EDTA ethylenediaminotetraacetic acid EEV estimated exposure value EF enrichment factor © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information xxii Abbreviations ELA Experimental Lakes Area ENEV estimated no effects value ER endoplasmic reticulum EROD ethoxyresorufin-o-deethylase ETS electron transport system FISH fluorescence in situ hybridisation GC-MS gas chromatography-mass spectrometry GSSG glutathione disulphide GUS Groundwater ubiquity score (United Kingdom); defined as (1 g soil t1/2) · (4 - (1 g Koc)) HAB harmful algal bloom HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatography pH (negative logarithm of) hydrogen ion concentration IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer ICP-MS inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection IQ intelligence quotient ISE ion selective electrode Ka dissociation constant for weak acid (see glossary) kDa kilodaltons Kow octanol: water partition coefficient (see glossary) LAS linear alkylbenzene sulphonate LLIR low-level ionising radiation LTE linear transfer energy (see glossary) LULU locally unwanted land use NAD(H) nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced form) NADP(H) nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (reduced form) NIMBY not in my backyard NIMTO not in my term of office NTA nitrilotriacetic acid NOAA National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (United States) NSP neurotoxic shellfish poisoning OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration (United States) PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon PAN peroxyacetyl nitrate PCB polychlorinated biphenyl PMR premanufacturing registration PPAR peroxisome proliferase-activated receptor PSP paralytic shellfish poisoning RAIN Reversing Acidification in Norway RAR retinoid receptor © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information Abbreviations xxiii RXR retinoic acid receptor SEM simultaneously extracted metals (used in association with acid volatile sulfides, AVS) SERF Shoreline Environmental Research Facility SETAC Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry SOD superoxide dismutase STP sewage treatment plant TBT tributyltin 3,4,5-T 3,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid 2,3,7,8,TCDD 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin TOC total organic carbon UDG glucoronosyl transferase UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation U.S. EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency WHAM Windermere Humic Acid Model © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521581516 - Environmental Toxicology David A. Wright and Pamela Welbourn Frontmatter More information Acknowledgements 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 嘷 The authors are grateful to the following colleagues and students who contributed to this volume in various ways: Tom Adams, Carol Andews, Joel Baker, Gord Balch, Allyson Bissing, Canadian Environmental Law Association (Kathleen Cooper, Lisa McShane, and Paul Muldoon), Thomas Clarkson, Peter Dillon, Susan Dreier, Catherine Eimers, Hayla Evans, Mary Haasch, Landis Hare, Holger Hintelmann, Thomas Hutchinson, Maggie Julian, Allan Kuja, David Lasenby, David McLaughlin, Kenneth Nicholls, David Richardson, Eric Sager, Rajesh Seth, Douglas Spry, David Vanderweele, Chip Weseloh. Particular thanks are due to the following for their special contributions, such as painstaking review of certain sections: Dianne Corcoran, R. Douglas Evans, Robert Loney, Donald Mackay, Sheila Macfie, Ann MacNeille, Lisa McShane, Diane Malley, Christopher Metcalfe, Macy Nelson, Robert Prairie, David Schindler, Elizabeth Sinclair, Judith Wilson. Robert Loney is thanked for his drafting of some of the figures, and Guri Roesijadi is thanked for the juxtaposition of the two quotes in Chapter 13. Above all, this book is a testament to the patience of three people; Peter Campbell, who edited the whole text and made many helpful suggestions; Linda Rogers, who produced the typescript and collated the references; and Fran Younger, who drafted most of the figures. This project benefitted in part from financial support from Trent University. © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
