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Environmental Science
A Study of Interrelationships
Enger & Smith
Chapter 1
Environmental Interrelationships
Environmental Interrelationships
Outline
• The Nature of Environmental Science
• Regional Environmental Concerns
• Summary
The Nature of Environmental Science
• Environmental science is
interdisciplinary, and includes
scientific and social aspects of human
impact on the world.
▫ It is a mixture of traditional science,
individual and societal values, and
political awareness.
The Nature of Environmental Science
• Environment
is everything
that affects an
organism
during its
lifetime.
Environmental science
Interrelatedness Is a Core Concept
• The study of environmental science is so
interesting, frustrating, and challenging
because of the interrelatedness among
seeming unrelated factors.
• Charles Darwin proposed that seed
production in red clover was related to
the number of cats in the area.
Interrelatedness Is a Core Concept
• The reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone
National Park has resulted in many changes.
• 31 wolves were introduced in 1995.
• In 1996 there were about 320 wolves.
• The wolves have caused water flow changes in
the park, increases in willow and aspen trees,
as well as songbirds, foxes, certain rodents,
hawks, and owls.
• Coyote and elk have declined.
Interrelatedness Is a Core Concept
• The Yellowstone wolves are connected to social,
economic, and political realms of human activity.
• It was important to environmentalists and
biologists to restore the wolf to its former habitat.
• Ranchers could lose money if wolves killed
livestock.
• The farm lobby fought long and hard in congress
to prevent the reintroduction.
• A fund was developed to pay ranchers for cattle
killed by wolves.
An Ecosystem Approach
• An ecosystem is a region in which the
organisms and the physical environment
form an interacting unit.
• The task of an environmental scientist is to
recognize and understand the natural
interactions that take place, and to integrate
these with the uses humans must make of
the natural world.
Political and Economic Issues
• Most social and political decisions are made
with respect to political jurisdictions.
• Environmental problems do not necessarily
coincide with artificial political boundaries.
▫ Air pollution in China affects air quality in the
western coastal U.S. and British Columbia,
Canada.
▫ Air pollution in Mexico affects air quality in
Texas.
Political and Economic Issues
• International agencies such as the
International Joint Commission have major
bearing on environmental quality over broad
regions.
▫ The International Joint Commission was
established in 1909, in part, to protect boundary
waters between the U.S. and Canada.
▫ The Commission identifies areas of concern and
encourages the cleanup of polluted sites that
affect the quality of the Great Lakes and other
boundary waters.
The Global Nature
of Environmental Concerns
• The first worldwide meeting of heads of
state directed toward the environment took
place at the Earth Summit (United Nations
Conference on Environment and
Development) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
▫ Most countries at the conference signed
agreements on sustainable development and
biodiversity.
The Global Nature
of Environmental Concerns
• In 1997, representatives from 125 nations
met in Kyoto, Japan for the Third
Conference of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate
Change.
▫ The Kyoto Protocol is viewed as one of the
most important steps to date in environmental
protection and international diplomacy.
The Global Nature
of Environmental Concerns
• The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment was
completed in 2005.
▫ As the human population grows, it puts pressure
on the natural ecosystems of the world.
▫ Most ecosystems are being negatively affected.
▫ Food production has increased at the expense of
soil loss due to erosion, conversion of natural
ecosystems to managed systems, and
overconsumption of water.
Regional Environmental Concerns
• Environmental problems are complex and
interrelated with issues specific to a given
region.
• A regional approach to solving environmental
problems is ideal.
▫ Development and logging in the Pacific Northwest
conflict with the survival needs of owls, grizzly
bears, and other species.
▫ In most metropolitan areas, the problem of
endangered species is purely historical, as the
construction of cities has destroyed previously
existing ecosystems.
Regions of North America
The Wilderness North
• Much of Alaska and
northern Canada can be
characterized as
“wilderness” — areas
with minimal human
influence.
▫ Much of this land is owned
by governments, so
governmental policies
have a significant impact.
The Wilderness North
• These areas have important economic values in
their trees, animals, scenery, and other natural
resources.
• Resource exploitation involves significant tradeoffs. These ecosystems are sensitive to insults and
take a long time to repair damage.
• In the past, many short-term political and
economic decisions failed to look at long-term
environmental implications.
• Today, politicians are more willing to consider the
scientific and recreational values of wilderness.
The Wilderness North
• Native peoples in this area are sensitive to
changes in land use or government policy
that would force changes in traditional ways
of life.
• They have become increasingly sophisticated
in negotiating with state, provincial, and
federal governments to protect rights they
feel they were granted in treaties.
The Agricultural Middle
• The middle of North
America is
dominated by
intensive
agriculture.
• Original, natural
ecosystems have
been replaced by
managed
agriculture.
The Agricultural Middle
• Farmland has tremendous economic
value.
▫ It is mostly private land.
▫ While governments cannot easily control
what happens on private lands, they can
 Encourage activities such as research.
 Grant subsidies to farmers to encourage the
planting of certain crops.
 Develop markets for products.
The Agricultural Middle
• Managed agricultural land is a major
nonpoint pollution source.
▫ Tilling causes air pollution in the form of dust.
▫ Soil erosion causes siltation of rivers and other
bodies of water.
▫ Nutrients from fertilizers are washed into rivers
and encourage algae growth, lowering water
quality.
▫ Fertilizers and pesticides may enter groundwater
and cause contamination.
The Dry West
• This term refers to areas where rainfall is
inadequate for agriculture, but adequate for
ranching and livestock production.
• Because much of the land in the western U.S.
is of low economic value, most is still the
property of the U.S. government.
• The government encourages its use by
providing low-cost water for livestock and
irrigation, and low-cost grazing rights. It also
encourages mining and other development.
The Dry West
• Water is an extremely valuable
resource in this region.
▫ As cities grow, conflict over water rights
arises between urban dwellers and
ranchers and farmers.
 Increased demand for water will result in
shortages and trade-off decisions.
The Dry West
• Low population density areas have a
wilderness character.
• Conflict has developed between
economic land management for
livestock vs. wilderness preservation.
The Forested West
• Coniferous forests
dominate the Pacific
Northwest landscape.
• Government and
commercial timber
companies own large
sections of land.
• Historically, the
government sold much of
this timber at a loss.
The Forested West
• In 1993, the U.S. Forest Service was directed
to stop below-cost timber sales.
▫ Timber officials claim access to public land
is necessary for them to remain in business
and support the economy.
▫ Conservationists argue ecological and
intangible values outweigh economic values.
 Grizzly bear habitat could be significantly altered
by logging.
 The northern spotted owl has become a symbol
of conflict between logging and preservation.
The Great Lakes & Industrial Northeast
• The Great Lakes and
Northeast are
dominated by large
metropolitan complexes
with large, complicated
resource demands.
• Many older cities have
declined, leaving behind
abandoned sites and
environmental
problems.
The Great Lakes & Industrial Northeast
• Industrial use of the Great Lakes and East
Coast has resulted in contamination of the
water with toxic materials.
▫ These pollutants bioaccumulate in the food chain.
 Governments have advised consumers not to eat fish
and shellfish from these areas.
• Water generates recreational value.
▫ Much of the North American population is
concentrated here, so the economic value of water
for recreational use is high.
The Diverse South
• The South is a microcosm
of all other regions.
• Extremely rapid
population growth in
some areas has led to
problems with
groundwater,
transportation, and
regulating the rate of
growth.
The Diverse South
• Poverty in some areas encourages state
and local governments to accept industrial
development at the expense of other
values.
• Use of the coastline sometimes encourages
development in unwise areas.
Summary
• Environmental science involves science,
economics, ethics, and politics in arriving at
solutions to environmental problems.
• Because ecosystems do not coincide with
political boundaries, a regional approach to
solving environmental problems is ideal.
• Each region of the world has certain
environmental issues that are of primary
concern because of the mix of population,
resource use patterns, and culture.