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Chemicals in the
Environment and their
Health
Implications
The European Union
takes action
Environment
Chemicals contribute in a multitude of ways to modern-day living. Although many serve our general well-being, some chemicals are toxic
and can harm our health. In recent years a worrying increase in certain health problems has been partially explained by the use of such
chemicals. The European Union (EU) has been a front runner in the design of legislation that offers greater protection to its citizens. And
in keeping with the WSSD 20201 commitment, the EU has laws in place to protect human health from harmful chemicals. Several of
these prohibit or limit the use of hazardous chemicals and encourage a swift phase-out of the most harmful ones.
1 International global awareness of the potential harm to human health and the environment caused by exposure to chemicals led the international community at the
2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) to take on board a global commitment that by 2020 chemicals are used and produced in ways that lead to the
minimisation of significant adverse effects on human health and the environment.
Biocides
Biocidal products contain or generate active substances and are used
against harmful organisms such as pests and bacteria. They can be
found in household products such as disinfectants, rodenticides,
repellents, and insecticides. Others are used in industrial and
agricultural applications to protect natural or manufactured
products from damage. Due to their intrinsic properties and uses,
biocidal products may pose health risks. The EU is establishing a
regulatory framework aimed at significantly increasing the safety
of biocidal products used and sold in the EU. It provides for the
phase out of biocides that are carcinogenic, mutagenic, and toxic to
reproduction, disrupt the endocrine system or which are dangerous
to the environment. Products containing identified substances of
high concern will be subject to comparative assessment so that the
products with the highest risk will be eliminated and only safe
products will remain on the market. The new legislation will enter
into force in 2013.
Pesticides
Pesticides are used to control harmful organisms such as weeds
and insects. However, their use may endanger health and the environment. Many studies have examined the effects of pesticide
exposure and links have been found with cancer, problems with
fertility and reproduction, respiratory diseases, disruption of the
hormone (endocrine) system, immune system, and nervous system. The EU pesticides legislation (Directive 2009/128/EC) bans
the use of certain dangerous chemicals in these products. Pesticides
that are known to cause cancer, damage DNA, are toxic to the
reproductive system or harm the hormone system must be phased
out. Products containing certain hazardous substances are to be replaced if safer alternatives are shown to exist. The law also requires
countries to produce National Action Plans for the sustainable use
of pesticides in agriculture as well as reduced pesticide dependency
more generally, including in public parks, gardens and recreation
grounds.
Endocrine disruptors
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that interfere with the hormone (endocrine) system causing adverse health effects. A wide
range of substances, both natural and man-made, are thought to
cause endocrine disruption, including pharmaceuticals, pesticides
and industrial organic chemicals. Although endocrine disruptors
are most widely associated with reductions in human fertility, they
may also affect the development of the nervous and immune systems; and some studies point to a link with cancer, diabetes, endometriosis and other diseases. There is evidence that the incidence
of endocrine-related disorders in humans has increased in recent
years. Multiple causes underlie this trend, but evidence is mounting that chemical exposure is involved.
The European Community Strategy on endocrine disruptors
adopted in 1999 outlined the actions necessary to address
the potential health and environmental impacts of endocrine
disruption. Provisions on endocrine disruptors have also been
included in key legislation.2 In January 2012 the European
Commission released a major study, “State of the Art Assessment
of Endocrine Disruptors” (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/
endocrine/index_en.htm). The study which provides a thorough
scientific review was commissioned to inform the EU’s work on
the development of criteria to identify and regulate hormone
disruptors under EU law. The study will also facilitate the review
and possible revision of the European Community’s Strategy on
Endocrine Disruptors.
Heavy Metals - Cadmium, Lead and Mercury
The term heavy metal generally refers to metallic elements that
have a relatively high density and are toxic at low concentrations.
Cadmium in the environment comes from the burning of fossil
fuels such as coal or oil, and incineration of municipal waste.
Cadmium may also be emitted into the air as a result of metal
production or from the production of nickel-cadmium batteries.
Cadmium is extremely toxic even in small amounts. It is expelled
slowly from the body and so can accumulate over time causing
intestinal damage, digestive problems as well as kidney and bone
disease.
Lead is a malleable and ductile metal and is therefore used widely
in construction and manufacturing. Lead accumulates in soils and
sediments through deposition from air sources, direct discharge
of waste to water bodies, mining and erosion. Lead enters the
body by ingestion or inhalation. The majority of lead inhaled goes
directly into the bloodstream and can affect the nervous system.
Mercury comes from natural sources (such as volcanoes) and also
from human activity. Fossil fuel burning, mining, smelting, the
use of mercury in certain products and solid waste combustion
have boosted levels in the atmosphere. From here it is deposited
onto land and into water bodies causing contamination. Humans
can be exposed to mercury in their diet, especially if they eat a lot
2 Regulation concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and
Restriction of Chemicals (REACH 1907/2006 ) (Article 57) and Regulation
(1107/2009) concerning the placing of Plant Protection Products on the Market.
of seafood. High doses of mercury can be fatal for humans, but
even relatively low doses can seriously affect the nervous system
and have been linked with harmful effects on the cardiovascular,
immune and reproductive systems.
The EU has made considerable progress in addressing mercury
since the launch of the EU Mercury Strategy in 2005. The Strategy
was revised in 2010. Developments include: restrictions on the
sale of measuring devices containing mercury, a ban on exports of
metallic mercury from the EU and new rules on its obligatory safe
storage. The EU’s Industrial Emissions Directive adopted in 2010
will further reduce mercury emissions from industrial processes.
The EU strongly supports the international process (under UNEP)3
to develop a global legally binding instrument on mercury.
Cadmium, lead and mercury are controlled under the Restriction
of Hazardous Substances Directive (2002/95/EC). Strict limit
values are set for these metals in specified types of electrical and
electronic equipment. The End-of-Life Vehicles (2000/53/EC)
Directive also restricts their use. In addition, cadmium in jewellery
products and plastics has been banned under the REACH
Regulation (EC 1907/2006), while under the Water Framework
Directive (2000/60/EC), cadmium and mercury are listed as
priority hazardous substances and lead as a priority substance.
Persistent Organic Pollutants
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are chemical substances that
remain intact in the environment for long periods, are transported
across boundaries, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms
including humans and are found at higher concentrations in the
food chain. Because of their toxic characteristics, POPs pose
adverse effects to human health and the environment. POPs are
associated with cancer, neurological damage, birth defects, sterility,
and immune system defects. The Stockholm Convention is the
main global legally binding instrument protecting us from POPs.
The EU is strongly committed to the effective implementation of
the Stockholm Convention and has actively encouraged the listing
of additional chemicals under the Convention. Moreover the EU’s
POPs Regulation (EC No 850/2004) supports and reinforces the
provisions and to a certain extent goes beyond the Convention.
The Regulation contains provisions regarding production, placing
on the market and use of chemicals, management of stockpiles and
wastes, and measures to reduce unintentional releases of POPs.
Combination effects of chemicals – Chemical
Mixtures
We are exposed daily to various concentrations of chemicals from
a range of sources. Some studies suggest that different chemicals in
combination can have damaging effects on our health even when
they are below the “safe-level” for individual chemicals. In the EU
the regulation and risk assessment of chemicals is usually based
on a single substance approach. This means that the evaluation
is conducted chemical by chemical. However, there are concerns
that this may not provide sufficient protection from the risks posed
by simultaneous exposure to multiple chemicals and that another
approach is required. During the Swedish Presidency of the EU in
2009, the environment ministers asked the European Commission
to analyse whether and how existing legislation addresses this
problem and to propose appropriate modifications and guidelines.
The Commission will publish its report on this issue during 2012.
Pharmaceuticals in the Environment
Pharmaceutical residues have become an important source of
environmental contamination. Many pharmaceutical chemicals
are designed to be non-degradable and thus present a risk when they
enter, persist and disseminate in the environment. The European
Commission recognises that the pollution of the environment
by pharmaceutical residues is both an emerging environmental
problem and public health concern and is committed to addressing
this matter.
Nanomaterials are chemical substances or materials that are
manufactured and used at an extremely small scale. Numerous
products containing nanomaterials are already in use, and the
market is expected to flourish over the coming years. Nanomaterials
have the potential to improve the quality of life and to contribute
to industrial competitiveness. However, the new materials may
also raise health and safety concerns. These risks, and to what
extent they can be tackled by existing risk assessment measures in
the EU, have been the subject of several scientific opinions issued
by the European Commission’s Scientific Committee on Emerging
and Newly Identified Health Risks. The Committee’s general
view is that, there is still scientific uncertainty about the safety of
nanomaterials and therefore safety assessment must be done on a
case-by-case basis.
3 United Nations Environment Programme.
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Nanomaterials
Key Horizontal Policies and Important Tools
The EU has also developed a number of important policies and tools that protect human health
and the environment. REACH and CLP in particular strive to ensure that Europe’s citizens are
better informed about and protected against hazardous chemicals.
REACH stands for Registration, Evaluation,
Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals.
This regulation (EC 1907/2006) is a key part
of the EU’s endeavour to make the use of
chemicals safer. REACH attempts to address
long-term exposures and its implications for
human health and the environment. The
regulation creates a single regulatory system
dealing with industrial chemicals, and seeks
to close the knowledge gap by placing the
responsibility on industry to provide safety
information on their substances and to
manage the risks from chemicals. REACH’s
philosophy is that no chemical substance
in whatever form should be placed on the
market without adequate documentation.
Each producer and importer of chemicals
in volumes of one tonne or more per year
must register them with the European
Chemicals Agency (ECHA) and submit
information on their properties, uses and safe
ways of handling them. REACH also calls
for the progressive substitution of the most
dangerous chemicals by suitable alternatives.
The first registration deadline closed on
30 November 2010. Approximately 5000
substances were registered with ECHA.
This marks a major step towards the safe
management of chemicals.
The classification, labelling and packaging
of chemicals is important in ensuring that
people handling and using chemicals are
aware of the dangers. The United Nations
developed an internationally agreed system,
known as the Global Harmonised System
of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
(UNGHS). The EU Regulation on
Classification, Labelling and Packaging
of chemicals (CLP) (EC No 1272/2008)
aligns the existing EU classification system to
the UNGHS. All companies manufacturing
or importing hazardous substances were
required to appropriately classify, label and
package them in accordance with CLP by
1 December 2010 and to duly notify the
European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). More
than 100,000 substances were notified. The
data allow ECHA to establish a classification
and labelling inventory providing workers and
consumers with the information necessary to
select safer substances and to limit risk
Assessing Human Exposure
Human Biomonitoring (HBM) is the
gathering and analysing of samples of human
tissues or body fluids to identify the presence
and levels of chemicals in the human body.
These chemicals are taken in directly or
indirectly from the environment. This form of
monitoring is an important tool for assessing
human exposure to environmental substances.
The EU Research Programme is funding a
project to develop a framework for Human
Biomonitoring at EU level called COPHES.
The partner project, DEMOCOPHES, is
testing the feasibility of a coherent approach
to Human Biomonitoring in Europe, by
looking at biomarkers for mercury, cadmium,
phthalates and environmental tobacco smoke
in human hair and urine. The project will
collect samples and data from 120 motherchild pairs in each participating country.
More information: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/
© European Union, 2012
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