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THE ETHICS OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS
Jake Donovan ([email protected])
this, we must proceed with caution as we develop our
guidelines and practices.
The environmental effects of GMOs are particularly
concerning with crops and food production. One of the most
significant developments made by genetic engineering is the
ability of crops to produce pesticides and be resistance to
specific herbicides. These traits help with food production,
as farmers can grow crops in less than ideal conditions.
However the use of herbicides is significantly increased with
this method, which can have a negative effect on the
environment. The increased use of herbicides can also cause
strains of weeds and other plants to develop herbicide
resistance through cross-pollination. This eventually negates
any positive effect of the herbicide. Concerns have also been
raised with crops that are able to produce their own
pesticides. These concerns regard the adverse effects on
other species. Although pesticides protect crops against
unwanted insects, it is possible for them to have
unintentional effects on neutral or even beneficial species.
One example of this is the death of a large portion of the
Monarch butterfly population caused by a pesticide
engineered to grow in a specific species of corn [3].
Genetically modified crops also have possible negative
effects on human health, namely in the creation of new
allergies and proteins. When genes from different species
are spliced, it is possible for consumers to develop
unexpected allergic reactions. In one example, bioengineers
used genes from a nut found in Brazil to help increase the
production of the amino acid methionine in soya beans. This
unintentionally caused allergic reactions in people with nut
allergies. Along with this, proteins that have never been a
part of the human diet are now present in foods that people
consume every day. Their potential effects on the human
body are unknown and must be further researched [4].
GMOs make it possible to introduce extra nutrients,
vaccines, and antibiotics into foods. This technology can
provide nutrition and disease resistance to countries that
otherwise would not have access to them. The distribution of
these foods is much easier than mass vaccinations for most
of today’s major diseases. These products carry with them
potential negative effects caused by the development of
vaccine and antibiotic resistant strains of diseases. It is
essential that researchers consider environmental and human
health while this field develops. One example of a GMO that
must be researched further is the vitamin A enriched banana.
This technology will be able to help alleviate vitamin A
deficiency, which is a huge problem particularly in third
world countries [5].
THE BIOENGINEERING OF GMOS
As popular bioethicist Leon Kass explains, “The benefits
of biomedical progress are obvious, clear, and powerful. The
hazards are much less well appreciated” [1]. Biomedicine
and bioengineering have provided, and continue to provide
humans with a seemingly endless number of novel solutions
to biological problems. With rapid growth in the
technologies available to bioengineers, one must pay close
attention to ensure that research remains both safe and
ethical.
As Stanford University explains it, the mission of
bioengineering is to “create a fusion of engineering and the
life sciences that promotes scientific discovery and the
invention of new technologies and therapies through
research and education” [2]. One of the most significant of
these technologies is the production of genetically modified
organisms. To fully manipulate an organism’s genetic
makeup, one must use a new biotechnological method
known as transgenics. Transgenic organisms are able to
express foreign genes because the genetic code is universal
for all organisms. This means that any DNA sequence will
create the same protein in all organisms. Because of this
universality of the genetic code, researchers are able to cut
an organism’s DNA and add genes at common protein
points. This can be achieved using conventional selective
breeding and hybridization, cloning, antisense technology,
gene silencing, and various other methods [13].
Once the new DNA is in the organism’s genetic
sequence, it undergoes synthesis. In synthesis, DNA is
converted into RNA, which then travels into the cell plasma.
Once there, RNA is converted into single strands of amino
acids by ribosomes. These single strands bend and fold,
giving them a specific three-dimensional structure, which
controls their function. With these structures fully formed,
the cell expresses proteins that it would otherwise not have
been able to produce. This gives the organism new and novel
characteristics, which are used to benefit humans. Given the
nature of genetic research, there are quite a number of
ethical dilemmas surrounding GMOs.
ETHICAL DILEMMAS OF GMOS
Although genetically modified organisms have proven to
be extremely beneficial, they cause both scientists and the
general public to question whether or not they are ethical,
namely in their effects on the environment, and their effects
on humans. The use of GMOs is still in its infancy and the
long-term effects of them are not yet known. Because of
University of Pittsburgh, Swanson School of Engineering
2015-11-03
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Jake Donovan
VITAMIN A ENRICHED BANANAS
public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform
under a standard of professional behavior that requires
adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct” [9].
The ideas in this preamble, that engineers are obligated to
protect and serve society ultimately led me to refuse to
publish the information my boss needed. Publishing
incorrect data would be ethically wrong, as it would break a
number of the fundamental canons of both the NSPE Code
of Ethics and the Biomedical Engineering Society Code of
Ethics.
The first fundamental canon of the NSPE Code of Ethics
states that in the fulfillment of their professional duties,
engineers must, “Hold paramount the safety, health, and
welfare of the public” [9]. If I had listened to my boss, I
would be breaking this. Allowing the bananas to be grown
and consumed by humans without knowing possible adverse
effects puts them at risk to many unknown health issues.
This is unethical because it puts the safety, health, and
welfare of the public at risk. It is important for engineers to
always consider this canon because almost everything
engineers create affect the safety and health of our society.
The third and fifth canons together state that ethical
engineers must “Issue public statements only in an objective
and truthful manner” and “Avoid deceptive acts” [9]. Issuing
a statement to the company purchasing our technology that
the bananas were safe for human consumption would not be
objective and truthful, and would be highly deceptive. It is
important that engineers are truthful because the decisions
they make are very influential.
Engineers must conduct themselves with honor,
responsibly, and lawfulness in order to main the reputation
and honor of the profession. The Biomedical Engineering
Society defines bioengineering as “a learned profession that
combines expertise and responsibilities in engineering,
science, technology, and medicine” [10] Since public health
and welfare are extremely important in each of these areas,
bioengineers are obligated to maintain principles of ethical
conduct in research, professional practice, and patient care.
As a researcher for the University of Pittsburgh Medical
Center, I was able to successfully bioengineer a breed of
bananas modified with the banana gene “phytoene synthase
(PSY2a), isolated from the asupina banana, which is
naturally high in beta carotene, a precursor to vitamin A”
[6]. This gene significantly increased the amount of vitamin
A produced by the banana. In order to make production
easier, I also inserted genes that would help with pest and
disease resistance. In the countries that we would apply the
bananas, desert locusts are a huge problem. A swarm of
“one million locusts can eat about one ton of food each day,
and the largest swarms can consume over 100,000 tons each
day, or enough to feed tens of thousands of people for one
year” [7]. For this reason, I fortified the bananas to produce
a pesticide that kills locust.
Another huge problem facing banana production are two
diseases that “are attacking banana crops across central
Africa, putting about 30 million people at risk in regions
where it is a staple” [8] These diseases are banana bunchy
top virus, which stunts the plants growth, and bacterial wilt,
which causes premature ripening. To combat these
problems, I also fortified the bananas with genes that would
make them more disease resistant. With the introduction of
all of these new genes, I decided that it would be necessary
for further testing to be done to ensure that the bananas were
safe for both human consumption and for the environment.
Before I was able to complete my research on the adverse
effects of the bananas, UPMC received a huge monetary
offer for the technology. The company buying it told us that
they needed it right away, and that if we couldn’t do that,
they would buy a similar technology from our biggest
competitor. I was asked by my boss to conclude that the
bananas were safe before the research was done in order to
make the sale. This made me very uncomfortable because I
knew that it was possible for the bananas to eventually have
negative effects on humans or the environment, but I was
concerned with losing my job for not listening to my boss.
To help me make a decision, I consulted multiple pieces of
literature on ethics, including codes of ethics and different
case studies involving ethical situations.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS
Ethics in engineering is important because engineering is
a very influential field. Whether it has to do with the
manipulation of an organisms’ genetic makeup, the building
of a bridge, or simply the way a house is made, the
implications are profound. With this privileged position,
engineers are obligated to look towards their codes of ethics
as moral compasses to ensure that their work remains
honorable. Ethics influences a vast number of situations and
there are many case studies that provide good examples. I
found two case studies particularly interesting, the first
involving the integrity of a structural engineer and the
second involving advances made in synthetic biology.
In the first of these situations, a distinguished structural
engineer is contacted by an engineering student who
ETHICAL EVALUATION
The preamble to the National Society of Professional
Engineers’ code of ethics sets an extremely strong
precedence for how engineers should conduct themselves,
stating that “Engineering is an important and learned
profession. As members of this profession, engineers are
expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and
integrity. Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the
quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services
provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness,
and equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the
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expresses concerns about a major design flaw in one of his
famous skyscrapers. At first the engineer dismisses the
student's concerns, but he starts thinking about it. He
reviews his schematics and realizes the student was correct
and that strong winds could cause the building to fall, taking
thousands of innocent lives Fixing the building would be a
huge endeavor, as it would require notifying the building's
owners and the press. It would also have a negative effect on
his professional reputation. I believe that although it would
negatively affect him, he is obligated to rectify his mistake
because otherwise, he is putting thousands of people at risk
[11]. This is shown to be unethical in the first fundamental
canon of the NSPE Code of Ethics.
The latter of these case studies is involves a field closely
related to GMOs, synthetic biology. It explains that synthetic
biology provides novel solutions to problems in health,
energy, and the environment by combining engineering and
biology for the creation of biological systems that do not
occur in nature. These systems are able to perform functions
with a vast range of applications beneficial to humans. The
potential value of these applications is enormous as they
efficiently address many of the problem facing today’s
engineers. The potential of synthetic biology is well known
to policymakers and governmental agencies, but there are
also concerns with the problems in ethics and policy that
may be associated with the development and application of
novel biological machines [12].
The case study asks the reader to imagine that he or she
is a part of a diverse group of graduate students from
Georgia Tech, Emory University, Georgia State University
College of Law, and Morehouse School of Medicine. The
reader is hypothetically participating in an ethics course
funded by the National Science Foundation. He or she is
required to investigate and provide ethical and policy
analysis to the Emergent Behaviors of Integrated Cellular
Systems sector of the Science and Technology Center. The
reader is allowed to choose from three different areas of
study. The first involves cellular systems that are able to
sense levels of substances like glucose in a person’s blood
and instruct other cellular systems to secrete drugs such as
insulin. In the second area, the reader researches test-bed
cellular systems that are able to mimic the behavior of
organs like the heart and liver. These products can be used to
screen drugs to ensure that they are safe and efficient,
helping to help reduce the need for animal testing in the
development of drugs. The final of the three areas involves
cellular systems that test for neurotoxins in water. They are
then able to signal other cellular systems to produce
substances that help the body fight against neurotoxins [12].
In analyzing and arriving at recommendations for the
ethics and policy in their area of study, the reader is given
access to graduate student researchers and faculty. This
provides an opportunity for the reader to learn from an
expert in the field. He or she is able to engage with them on
the ethical and policy issues associated with their work. The
reason for this case study is to demonstrate that ethics plays
a vital role in nearly everything an engineer or researcher
does. This serves as yet another reminder of the importance
of ethics in the fields of science and engineering.
REFERENCES
[1] L. Kass. “Leon Kass Quote.” (Online Quote).
http://izquotes.com/quote/99062
[2] “Department Overview.” Stanford Engineering. (Web
page). https://bioengineering.stanford.edu/about/departmentoverview
[3] “Executive Summary from the Genetically Modified
Organism Exploratory Committee.” (Online Article).
http://www.macalester.edu/~montgomery/GMOs2.htm
[4] “What are the Ethical Issues?” Hudson Alpha Institute
for Biotechnology. (Online Article).
http://archive.hudsonalpha.org/education/kits/gmod/gmoethics
[5] “Super Nanners! Engineering Bananas to Save Vision,
Life in East Africa.” Science in the News. (2014). (Online
blog). http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2014/super-nannersengineering-bananas-to-save-vision-life-in-east-africa/
[6] E. Waltz. (2014). “Vitamin A Super Banana in human
trials.”
(Online
article).
http://rt4rf9qn2y.search.serialssolutions.com/?genre=article
&title=Nature%20Biotechnology&atitle=Vitamin%20A%20
Super%20Banana%20in%20human%20trials.&author=Walt
z%2C%20Emily&authors=Waltz%2C%20Emily&date=201
40901&volume=32&issue=9&spage=857&issn=10870156
[7] “Plant Pests and Diseases.” Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations. (Online Article).
http://www.fao.org/emergencies/emergency-types/plantpests-and-diseases/en/
[8] D. McNeil. (2009, August 31). The New York Times.
(Online
Blog).
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/01/health/01glob.html?_r=
2
[9] “NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers.” (2007). National
Society of Professional Engineers. (Online Article).
http://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics
[10] “Biomedical Engineering Society Code of Ethics.”
(2004). Biomedical Engineering Society. (Online Article).
http://bmes.org/files/2004%20Approved%20%20Code%20o
f%20Ethics(2).pdf
[11] “The Cost of Integrity.” WebGuru. (Case Study).
http://www.webguru.neu.edu/professionalism/casestudies/cost-integrity
[12] “Ethical and Policy Problems in Synthetic Biology.”
Online
Ethics
Center.
(Case
Study).
http://www.onlineethics.org/Resources/Cases/27581.aspx
[13] L. Glenn. “Ethical Issues in Genetic Engineering and
Transgenics.”
(Online
Article).
http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotechnology/glenn.html
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Jake Donovan
ADDITIONAL SOURCES
“Ethics Case Studies in Biodesign” Stanford Biodesign.
(Case
Study).
http://biodesign.stanford.edu/bdn/ethicscases/18animallab.js
p
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Professor Karen Bursic, the Pitt
Writing Instructors, the Belvier Librarians, and Aidan
Conway for providing me with the necessary skills,
inspiration, and assistance to write this paper. Without them,
I could not have written this.
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