Download Dissolved methane and oxygen depletion in the two coastal

Indian Journal of Geo Marine Sciences
Vol. 46 (07), July 2017, pp. 1287-1297
Dissolved methane and oxygen depletion in the two coastal lagoons,
Red Sea
Mohammed I. Orif, Yasar N Kavil*, Rasiq Kelassanthodi, Radwan Al-Farawati, & Mosa I. Al Zobidi
Marine Chemistry Department, Faculty of Marine Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80207, Jeddah 21589, Saudi
Arabia
*
[E-mail: [email protected]]
Received 12 January 2017 ; revised 27 February 2017
The emission of methane (CH4), a major greenhouse gas, from polluted lagoons is of scientific interest. Polluted basins are conducive
to CH4 production through microbial activity. This study presents a baseline dataset on dissolved CH 4 from two Red Sea coastal
lagoons. These lagoons are extremely polluted, primarily due to extensive sewage dumping. Both the lagoons were experienced
severe oxygen depletion. Nitrate deficit value was negative and most of the nitrate were lost through denitrification pathway. The
observed ammonia concentration was also high. Methane concentrations in both lagoons were measured, and maximum
concentrations were observed at the bottom waters of the lagoons and minimums at the surface. Average surface methane
concentrations were 0.16 and 4.09 µM in the Al-Shabab and Al-Arbaeen lagoons, respectively, and those of the bottom were 3.11
and 13.2 µM, respectively. The diffusive flux of methane from the bottom to surface waters in the Al-Arbaeen lagoon was notably
high, and significant hydrogen sulfide production was also observed. Methanotrophic bacterial activity occurred in the oxic
environment of the water column. Organic matter decomposition led to an oxygen-depleted system which will enhance the different
nitrogen transformation processes.
[Keywords: methane, oxygen depletion, Al-Shabab and Al-Arbaeen lagoons, sewage, methanogenesis, Red Sea coast]
Introduction
Atmospheric methane (CH4) is a potent
greenhouse gas. CH4’s contribution to the global
warming effect is 25 times more per molecule
than that of CO21. Over the last several decades,
the CH4 concentration in the atmosphere has
increased drastically, primarily owing to
anthropogenic activities. Specifically, the average
atmospheric concentration of CH4 has risen to
156% of the pre-industrial level of 1789 ppb1,
although its accumulation rate has declined in
recent years2. Atmospheric levels of CH4 have
been extraordinary in at least the last 650 kyr3.
Direct measurements of CH4 over the last 25 years
show that although the abundance of CH4 has
increased by approximately 30% in that time, its
growth rate increased by 1%/year in the late 1970s
and early 1980s4. The reasons for the slow growth
rate and the implications for future changes in CH4
concentration are not yet clear5, but this
phenomenon is believed to be related to the
imbalance between CH4 sources and sinks. The
removal of methane from the atmosphere is
possible through its reaction with hydroxyl
radicals6 but this reaction may reduce the
tropospheric oxidizing capacity. Other minor CH4
removal methods include the reaction of CH4with
chlorine 7, 8 and its destruction in the stratosphere
and soil sinks 9. The main sources of methane in
marine systems include agriculture, especially
paddy fields; land erosion; and wastewater
treatment. The in-situ production of methane is
favored by methanogenic bacteria, which are
active in water with low oxygen content. Since
microbial production of CH4 cannot take place in
oxic environments 10, CH4is believed form
primarily within the reducing interiors of particles.
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INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 46, NO. 07, JULY 2017
Evidence for such a source has been provided by
Owens et al. (1991)11, Karl and Tilbrook (1994)12,
and Marty et al. (1997)13 through incubation
experiments. The concentration of CH4 in
sediment depends mainly on organic matter
deposition. The biogeochemical cycling of
methane is purely dependent on the redox state of
the environment, which is related to ambient
dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration. Oxygen
depletion in aquatic systems can be due to natural
and anthropogenic activities. However, all natural
O2-depleted zones have arguably been affected by
human activities in a comparable manner Lagoons
are among the most common near-shore coastal
environments, occupying 13% of the world’s
coastline14. Several studies have addressed the
CH4 efflux to the atmosphere from shallow or/and
intertidal lagoon sediments15, 16, 17.
Over the past several decades, the number of
coastal hypoxic zones due to human activities has
increased steadily18 (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008).
The CH4 contribution of coastal waters is
basically from marshland sources19, 20, 6, 21. High
loads of nutrients and organic matter are the main
contributors to this ubiquitous oxygen depletion in
polluted lagoons. The main sources of these
matters are terrestrial via waste disposal and the
input of drainage systems. Bulk build-up of CH4
in the open ocean does not occur by
methanogenesis, as microbial production of
methane from CO2 or acetate is restricted by other
electron acceptors, such as oxygen and sulfate.
Materials and Methods
The eastern coast of the Red Sea is approximately
1930 km long, and 90% of the coastline belongs
to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia22, 23. Jeddah is
one of the major economic urban cities along the
Red Sea coast, lying in the central part of the Red
Sea. According to a survey by the Jeddah
Municipality, in 2006 the population of Jeddah
surpassed 3 million and is increasing drastically24.
Such a large population and industrialization with
oil refineries and chemical industries have caused
excessive waste production, with waste disposal
becoming a major issue for the city. Treated as
well as non-treated wastes were being dumped
into nearby areas, such as the southern Corniche
area25, 26, 27, Al-Arbaeen lagoon28 and Al-Shabab
lagoon29. Compared with the Al-Arbaeen lagoon,
the Al-
Shabab lagoon is relatively small with a surface
area of approximately 145×103 m2 and a volume
of approximately 1.1×106 m3, while the AlArbaeen lagoon has a surface area of 254×103 and
a volume of 1×106 m3. The Al-Shabab lagoon has
an elongated basin spread in the northeast
direction, offering enhanced connectivity with the
Red Sea; thus, permanent water exchange with
open water takes place in the upper 2-msurface
layer30. Conversely, the Al-Arbaeen lagoon has a
more complicated “T” shape comprising two
loops extended in an almost north-south direction
and a channel connecting the inside basins.
Renewal of bottom water rarely occurs during
storms and rough weather conditions in both
lagoons. The level of oxygen is declining
drastically, and there is a great risk of H2S
production in those areas. During spring, the
preferential consumption of NH4+ and the
development of NO3-are observed along the Red
Sea coast31. These are likely indicators of
nitrification, while towards the lagoon,
denitrification is suspected as dominant pathway.
The latter condition is favorable for the
production of methane in this area. As we
described previously, the effects of methane may
include changes in weather conditions over the
Jeddah coast.
The data were collected in the present study
during June 2015. Sampling locations of both
lagoons are shown in Fig.1. Water was sampled
using a peristaltic pump. Sub-samples for DO,
hydrogen sulfide and methane measurement were
collected carefully without any bubbles. DO
samples were analyzed using Winkler’s method
on the same day of collection. Temperature,
salinity and pH of samples were measured using a
YSI Multi-parameter Sonde (U.S.A.). Salinity
samples were standardized by an MS-310 Microsalinometer, and pH samples were standardized
using a pH meter. Nutrient samples were
preserved at 4°C and measured using the
Grasshoff method with a spectrophotometer
(Shimadzu UV-2450). Samples for hydrogen
sulfide
measurement
were
analyzed
spectrophotometrically using the methods of Cline
(1969)32. Water samples for CH4 measurement
were collected in 60-ml reagent bottles
immediately following sampling for DO. Samples
were injected with saturated mercuric chloride
(0.3ml/60ml), halting microbial activity.
ORIF et al.: DISSOLVED METHANE AND OXYGEN DEPLETION, RED SEA
1289
Shabab lagoon (Fig. 2a and 2b).
Figure 1: Map showing the study locations at Al-Shabab and
Al-Arbaeen Lagoons
Dissolved CH4levels in the samples were
determined using the multiple-phase equilibration
technique33. Briefly, 25ml of the sample was
equilibrated successively with an equal volume of
ultrapure helium in a gas-tight syringe via
vigorous shaking of the syringe at room
temperature (25°C) for 5 minutes. After
equilibrium was reached, the headspace was
injected through a 5-ml sampling loop into a gas
chromatograph (GC, Shimadzu-2010) equipped
with a flame ionization detector. Separation was
achieved over a stainless-steel column that was
1.8m in length with an inner diameter of 2mm and
packed with a molecular sieve (5A 80/100-mesh,
Toshvin) maintained at a temperature of 60°C.
Detector was calibrated at regular intervals using
a standard gas mixture of CH4 (MED gas), and the
gases were calibrated against 4.3ppm of CH4
standard reference material. For confirmation of
the linearity of the detector with the gases, one
laboratory standard was analyzed after each 10
samples. Ambient concentration of CH4was
measured through the collection of atmospheric
gas samples in a 60-ml gas-tight syringe and
direct injection of the samples into the GC in the
same manner as that of the sample headspace.
Figure 2 : Contour plots showing the vertical distribution of,
(a) Temperature, (b) Salinity and (c) Dissolved Oxygen at
Al-Shabab Lagoon
There was not much vertical and horizontal
variation in temperature, but salinity did vary
greatly in both directions. As mentioned
previously by El Sayed et al. (2011)34, the first
mixing layer has high temperature and low
salinity. The average salinity of the Red Sea has
been reported as 39ppt23, while the coastal water
of the Red Sea at Jeddah has a comparatively
higher salinity, averaging 39.4 ppt35, 36. As we
mentioned in section 2, the Al-Shabab lagoon has
greater connectivity with the open water of the
Red Sea than the Al-Arbaeen lagoon. Salinity and
temperature along the Al-Arbaeen lagoon varied
from 26.74 to 34.48 psu and 29.2°C to 30.27°C,
respectively (Fig. 3a and 3b).
Results and Discussion
The basic chemical and physical changes along
the two lagoons were dissimilar. Temperature and
salinity varied from 29.9°C to 31.56°C and from
33.53 to 38.15 ppt, respectively, along the Al-
Figure 3: Contour plots showing the vertical distribution of,
(a) temperature and (b) Salinity at Al-Arbaeen Lagoon
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The obtained distribution of salinity along both
lagoons demonstrates the greater connectivity of
Al-Shabab lagoon with the open sea. Table 1
(Supplementary Table) shows the pH data from
the Al-Shabab and Al-Arbaeen lagoons. The pH
value of Al-Shabab lagoon exhibited decreasing
trend with depth and showing the average value of
8.20 at the bottom of the lagoon, which is in the
range with the average pH of Red Seawater.
Range of pH along the Al-Shabab lagoon were
8.10-8.72 and that of Al-Arbaeen lagoon were
7.60-8.71. In the Al-Arbaeen lagoon, the pattern
was slightly more interesting. pH was less than
that of the Al-Shabab lagoon, and the average
value at the bottom is 7.81. This trend may reflect
sewage disposal, which, in narrowed aquatic
environments, results in reduced pH owing to
organic matter decomposition and the release of
CO237.
Continuous dumping of approximately 100,000
m3 of treated and raw sewage into the lagoons for
several years led to the depletion of DO.
According to the official source of Jeddah
Municipality, since 1996, municipal sewage and
wastewater disposal into the lagoons has ceased.
However, studies by Turki (2002, 2007)29, 38and El
Sayed (2002a)26 have reported that the
environmental conditions are worsening due to
the dumping of waste, which will continue to be a
problem into the future. In the present study, we
noticed an unpleasant smell from the lagoons.
Recent extension of the Jeddah Islamic Port has
restricted the circulation of water. The extension
has also created an external lagoon with a
combination of seawater and wastewater that is
discharged into the two lagoons. External water
body of the lagoons is receiving wastewater with
an enormous organic load from the city’s fish
market. Such conditions contribute to oxygen
depletion along both lagoons. Spatial and vertical
distributions of DO along both lagoons are shown
in Fig. 2c and 4a.
We observed that DO is being depleted vertically
in both lagoons. Renewal of bottom water takes
place only rarely, during storms and in rough
weather. This vertical depletion leads to the
accumulation of organic matter and the
development of anoxic conditions in the bottom
layer34. In the Al-Shabab lagoon, we observed
hypoxia at the bottom depths of station1 with a
value of 63.07µM. There were decreasing trends
of DO with increasing depth in the rest of the
stations.
Figure 4 : Contour plots showing the vertical distribution of,
(a) Dissolved Oxygen and (b) Hydrogen sulfide with stations
in Al-Arbaeen Lagoon
The DO trends along the Al-Arbaeen lagoon were
more interesting. We noted anoxia at stations 2
and 3 at the bottom of the lagoon, as well as
corresponding hydrogen sulfide production. The
most interesting finding was at station 4, where
the entire water column was anoxic, with
H2Sproduction throughout the depth up to 0.5
meter. Maximum H2S concentration observed at
station 4 was 55.54µM at the bottom. The
observed H2S concentrations along the AlArbaeen lagoon are shown in Fig. 4b.
Dumping of sewage appeared to be the primary
source of nitrogen and phosphorous to the surface
waters of the study area37. The concentrations of
N and P in the Al-Shabab and Al-Arbaeen
lagoons were greater than those in the Red Sea39.
Distributions of nitrite, nitrate, phosphate and
ammonia along the Al-Shabab and Al-Arbaeen
lagoons are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively.
The results of analysis show that the
concentrations of oxidized forms of N2were
relatively low. Their average concentrations in the
Total Inorganic Nitrogen (TIN) varied from
ORIF et al.: DISSOLVED METHANE AND OXYGEN DEPLETION, RED SEA
47.73% along the surface to 17.65% along the
bottom of the Al-Shabab lagoon.
Corresponding average concentrations in the AlArbaeen lagoon were 39.17% at the surface and
1.49% at the bottom. The nitrite and nitrate
distribution pattern of both lagoons showed the
decreasing trend with increasing depth.
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between NH4+ andNO2++NO3- and distribution of
ammonia and nitrite+nitrate with depth at the AlArbaeen lagoon supportsN2-transformation (Fig.
7).
Figure 5 : Contour plots showing the vertical distribution of
nutrients in Al- Shabab Lagoon
Figure 7: The vertical distribution of Nitrite+Nitrate and
Ammonia Al- Arbaeen Lagoon
Figure 6 : Contour plots showing the vertical distribution of
nutrients in Al- Arbaeen Lagoon
The nitrate deficit (N*) values were estimated as
explained by Deutsch et al,200140. The observed
range of N* values in the Al-Shabab lagoon were
-1.38─ -78.96 and that of Al-Arbaeen lagoon
were -4.76─ -125.35.
The recorded negative N* as mostly caused by the
loss of nitrate through the denitrification process.
By this explanation, the loss of nitrate by the
denitrification process could be extensive even in
the oxic regions41.
The concentration of ammonia was quite high at
the bottom of the Al-Arbaeen lagoon. Turki et al.
(2002)29 demonstrated gains of NO2- and NO3with the loss of NH4+. Negative correlation
The observed NO2- + NO3- values are higher at the
surface and values are getting depleted while
going towards the bottom depth at Al-Shabab
lagoon. The values were in the range of 0.23 to
47.88µM. Maximum concentration was noted at
the inner surface of the sampling location (S1).
While moving towards the mouth of the station
(S4) the values were getting lowered at both
surface and bottom length of the water column.
The concentration of phosphate was in the range
of 0.34-7.44µM. Highest concentration was
obtained at the surface of the mouth. Profile of
ammonia was showing an increasing trend
towards the mid depth and away from S1 to S4
too. The values were in the range of 0.2150.52µM. The trend of NO2- + NO3- at AlArbaeen lagoon follows as Al-Shabab, but the
values were comparatively little higher and was in
the range of 1.55-50.55µM. The values are getting
depleted sharply towards the bottom depth. Level
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of phosphate was quite higher than that of Shabab
water column. Maximum concentration observed
at the bottom depth of the station 3. Values were
in the range of 5.04-12.10µM. The observed range
of ammonium ion was 26.98-279.39µM.
Values were comparatively far higher than that of
Al-Shabab water. But the trend was almost similar
to the Shabab water. The highest concentration
was noted at the bottom depth of station 4. From
the distribution patterns of nutrients along both
lagoons, we confirmed that phosphate was the
limiting nutrient.
Figure 9 : The relationship pattern of Dissolved Oxygen and
Methane with depth in Al-Shabab Lagoon
Figure 8 : Contour plots showing the vertical distribution of
Methane (a) Al-Shabab Lagoon and (b) Al-Arbaeen Lagoon
The spatial and vertical distribution of methane in
the surface waters of the lagoons resulted from the
balance between transport, outgassing to the
atmosphere, production and oxidation in waters
and sediments of the lagoons. When the water
column is anaerobic, it can support significant
methanogenesis42. Methanogens are strictly
anaerobic microorganisms that produce CH4, and
their most common habitats are freshwater and
saline sediments43. Considering the influence of
pore water on the water column through gas
diffusion44, we would expect higher CH4
concentrations in the overlying layer of the
sediments, which should also be an oxygendepleted zone. Both of these factors favor the
production of methane in the bottom layer45. The
distribution of methane along the Al-Shabab and
Al-Arbaeen lagoons is shown in Fig. 8a and 8b,
respectively.
Compared with the Al-Shabab lagoon, the AlArbaeen lagoon’s methane production was quite
high. Both lagoons exhibited an increasing trend
of methane concentrations with depth. The formed
methane has a tendency to diffuse toward the
surface. The most likely mechanism behind the
transport of methane to surface water is
bubbling46. The fraction of methane bubbles that
passes through the water column and reaches the
atmosphere primarily depends on water depth and
bubble size.
However, if the upper layer of the water
column is oxic, a considerable amount of CH4 will
be oxidized by methanotrophic bacterial activity47.
The bacteria produced methane in anoxic
sediments/water column that was oxidized in
aerobic zones48, 49. Hence, anoxia is the primary
factor in methane production and the sustenance
of methanogens. In our study, whenever the water
column was oxic, the formed methane in the
bottom layer was oxidized while it diffused into
the upper layer.
The production rate of methane increased with
depth12, along with a high rate of loss in the
surface
ORIF et al.: DISSOLVED METHANE AND OXYGEN DEPLETION, RED SEA
1293
layer which could overpower the higher potential
rate at shallower depths50. Average surface
concentrations of methane along the Al-Shabab
and Al-Arbaeen lagoons were 0.16 and 4.09µM,
respectively, and those along the bottom of the
lagoons were 3.11and 13.2µM, respectively. This
trend of methane is clearly correlated with that of
DO. The correlation patterns of dissolved oxygen
and methane are shown in Figs. 9 and 10,
respectively. The correlation values between DO
and CH4 in the Al-Arbaeen lagoons were -0.907, 0.686 and -0.669 at the stations, S1, S2, and S3
respectively. Due to the complete anoxia at S4
water column, the correlation factor was not
significant. The corresponding correlation factor
values of S1, S2, S3, and S4 at Al-Shabab lagoon
were -0.892, -0.627, -0.987, and -0.816
respectively. A negative correlation was found in
the upper-layer oxidation of methane and was
more pronounced in the Al-Shabab lagoon than
the Al-Arbaeen lagoon.
Figure 10 : The relationship pattern of Dissolved Oxygen and
Methane with depth in Al-Arbaeen Lagoon
.
Figure 12 : The vertical distribution of NO2-+NO3- and
methane in Al-Arbaeen Lagoon
-
-
Figure 11 : The vertical distribution of NO2 +NO3 and
methane in Al-Shabab Lagoon
The rate of gas exchange between the surface
water and the atmosphere is a function of wind
speed, and wind speed triggers the mechanism of
methane flux to the atmosphere51. An increase in
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wind speed to 15 m/s or more52can lead to a sixto-seven times higher flux between water and air.
The analyzed lagoons have experienced
occasional dust storms, which might have
increased the flux of methane into the atmosphere
considerably. An enormous flux of methane was
noted at station 4, where we obtained the
maximum H2S concentration in the water column.
The flux in the Al-Arbaeen lagoon was fairly
large compared to that of the Al-Shabab lagoon.
To the best of our knowledge, there has not yet
been a study regarding the flux of methane from
these lagoons and the Red Sea coast. In both
lagoons, nitrate and nitrite were being consumed,
and the production of methane occurred with the
decrease in DO, as shown in Fig.11 and Fig. 12.
These
systems
reflect
simultaneous
methanogenesis and nitrogen transformation. For
the Al-Shabab lagoon, our data suggested that
most of the methane produced at the bottom was
oxidized when it diffused into the surface layer
owing to methanotrophs53, 54.
Conclusions
The production and consumption of methane in
both lagoons primarily depend on the depletion of
oxygen. This environmental dilemma affects both
physical and chemical aspects of the system.
Quality of water is notably poor, and from the
assessment of nutrient contents, both systems
were observed to have experienced Ntransformation processes.
Interpreted negative
nitrate deficit as mostly caused by the loss of
nitrate through the denitrification process.
Ammonium is the major contributor to nitrogen
nutrients. Apart from those findings, the AlArbaeen lagoon showed relatively high H2S
concentrations, especially in location 4, reflecting
plummeting water quality. The conditions in both
lagoons favor the high production of methane.
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This project was funded by the Deanship of
Scientific Research (DSR) at King Abdulaziz
University, Jeddah, under grant no. 440/150/1436.
Authors, Yasar N Kavil and Rasiq Kelassanthodi
are grateful to the Deanship of Graduate Studies,
King Abdulaziz University, for providing a Ph.D.
fellowship.
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Appendix
Table 1 : pH of Al- Arbaeen Lagoon (Supplementary Table)
Al-Arbaeen lagoon
Depth(m)
0
0.5
1
2.6
pH
7.6
7.87
7.93
7.84
2
0
1
2.2
8.71
8..01
7.86
3
0
1
2.3
8.60
8.10
7.80
4
0
1
3.2
7.97
7..88
7.74
Station
1
Al –Shabab Lagoon
Depth (m)
0
0.5
1
2
3.2
0
0.5
1
2
3.1
0
0.5
1
2
3.1
0
0.5
1
2
3.4
pH
8.44
8.35
8.47
8.34
8.10
8.47
8.60
8.40
8.30
8.10
8.47
8.60
8.40
8.30
8.10
8.62
8.72
8.42
8.37
8.26