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Chapter 10
Prospecting for Biological Gold
Biodiversity and Classification
Fourth Edition
BIOLOGY
Science for Life | with Physiology
Colleen Belk • Virginia Borden Maier
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
PowerPoint Lecture prepared by
Jill Feinstein
Richland Community College
1 Biological Classification- How Many Species
Exist?
 Biodiversity is the variety within and among living
species.
 Number of species known to science is between
1.4 and 1.8 million
 Uncertainty due to differences in methods of storing
and describing specimens
 Total number of species – estimates range from
3 – 100 million
 Average estimate is ~10 million species on Earth
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1 Biological Classification - How Many Species
Exist?
 Systematists are scientists who specialize in
describing and categorizing organisms.
 They work in the field of biological classification.
 Biological collections such as natural history
museums and herbaria store samples of the
different species.
 Systematists evaluate these collections to determine
overlap in identifying of species.
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1 Biological Classification - Kingdoms and
Domains
 Modern species are divided into three large groups,
or domains.
 Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
 Within Eukarya, four kingdoms are also recognized
 Plantae
 Animalia
 Fungi
 Protista
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1 Biological Classification - Kingdoms and
Domains
[INSERT TABLE 13.2 ON THIS SLIDE]
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1 Biological Classification - A Closer Look:
Kingdoms and Domains
 Recently, some scientists have begun to suggest
that organisms should be classified based on
evolutionary relationships.
 Major groups under this system correspond to
divergences early in life’s history.
 Determining evolutionary relationships requires
comparing DNA.
 DNA of closely related organisms should be more
similar than DNA of distantly related organisms.
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1 Biological Classification - A Closer Look:
Kingdoms and Domains
 Using rRNA to determine relationships among
distantly related organisms
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Animation: The Tree of Life
Click “Go to Animation” / Click “Play”
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2 The Diversity of Life - Bacteria and Archaea
 Life on earth arose at least 3.6 million years ago,
according to the fossil record.
 Most ancient fossilized cells are very similar to modern
bacteria and archaea
 Prokaryotes like bacteria and archaea don’t have a
nucleus, lack mitochondria and chloroplasts, and most
are unicellular
 Incredibly numerous and diverse
 Found on every square centimeter of the earth’s surface,
even inside deep sea vents, far underground, and in
clouds
 Prokaryotes are called microbes and are studied by
microbiologists.
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2 The Diversity of Life - Bacteria and Archaea
 Domain Bacteria
 Most bacteria are probably harmless to humans.
 We are most familiar with the ones that cause disease
 Many known bacteria obtain nutrients by decomposing
dead organisms
 Competition between bacteria has produced
compounds that humans make use of.
 Antibiotics – ~50% of antibiotics are derived from
bacterial sources
 Restriction enzymes – proteins that chop DNA at specific
sequences; useful in biotechnology
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2 The Diversity of Life - Bacteria and Archaea
 Domain Archaea
 Superficially similar to bacteria
 Differ in structure of cell membranes
 Archaeans typically found in extreme environments
(high temperature, high pressure, high salt
concentration)
 Taq polymerase comes from an archaean,
Thermophilus aquaticus
 Archaeans are likely to be source of other interesting
biomolecules
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2 The Diversity of Life – Domain Eukarya
 Evolution of the Eukaryotes
 Protists are the simplest of the eukaryotes
 Oldest eukaryotic fossils are ~2 billion years old,
1.5 billion years later than the first prokaryotic cells
 Endosymbiotic theory explains the evolution of
eukaryotes and their specialized structures.
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2 The Diversity of Life – Evolution of Eukaryotes
[INSERT FIGURE 13.8 ON THIS SLIDE]
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Animation: Endosymbiotic Theory
Click “Go to Animation” / Click “Play”
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2 The Diversity of Life – Protista
 Modern protists contain members that resemble
animals, plants, and fungi.
 Most members of the kingdom are not known
 No agreement among scientists on number of
groups below kingdom
 Number of proposed groups ranges from 8 to 80
 Algae has the ability to manufacture food.
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2 The Diversity of Life – Protista
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2 The Diversity of Life – Protista
 Bioprospectors have examined the plant-like
protists most closely for useful compounds.
 Natural selection has driven the evolution of
defensive compounds in these organisms.
 Extracts from red algae might be used in anti-viral
medication.
 Carageenan, a stabilizer and thickener, also comes
from protists.
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2 The Diversity of Life – Animalia
 Animals comprise a wide range of organisms, but
all share a common set of characteristics.
 Multicellular
 Heterotrophic (must eat to get energy)
 Mobile during at least one stage of life
 By 530 million years ago, all modern animal
groups were present.
 Most appeared quickly in fossil record
 Multicellular organisms quickly proliferated
 Known as Cambrian explosion
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2 The Diversity of Life – Animalia
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2 The Diversity of Life – Animalia
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2 The Diversity of Life – Animalia
 Most bioprospecting work focuses on invertebrates.
 Vertebrates only account for ~4% of animals
 Invertebrates are far more numerous and diverse
 Many invertebrates produce compounds found
nowhere else in nature
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2 The Diversity of Life – Animalia
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2 The Diversity of Life – Fungi
 Fungi characteristics
 Immobile
 Many reproduce by releasing spores
 Heterotrophic
 Feed by means of hyphae
 The hyphae of fungi can extend over a very large area
 DNA analysis by mycologists indicates fungi is more
closely related to animals than to plants
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2 The Diversity of Life – Fungi
 Fungi are grouped on the basis of spore formation
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2 The Diversity of Life – Fungi
 Commercially important fungal forms
 Yeast is a single celled type of fungi that is used in
bread, wine, and beer making.
 Mold is quickly reproducing and fast growing to
produce flavorful cheeses
 Fungi produce a number of important drugs
 Antibiotics
 Cyclosporin
 Statins
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2 The Diversity of Life – Plantae
 Characteristics of Plantae
 Multicellular
 Eukaryotic
 Autotrophic (manufacture own food) via
photosynthesis
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2 The Diversity of Life – Plantae
 Plants have been present on land for ~400 million
years.
 First plants were low to ground, lacked vascular
tissue
 Evolution of vascular tissue for water and nutrient
transport
 Allowed growth to tree size
 Allowed growth in drier areas
 Most modern plants in group only ~140 million
years old
 Flowering plants
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2 The Diversity of Life – Plantae
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2 The Diversity of Life – Plantae
 Over 90% of modern plants are flowering plants
and many specializations
 Rapid increase of flower plant species is called
adaptive radiation.
 Flowering plants employ double fertilization method
or reproduction
 Also often involve animals in reproductive process
(pollination)
 Also synthesize many secondary compounds that
deter predators
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2 The Diversity of Life – Plantae
 Double fertilization
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2 The Diversity of Life – Plantae
 Kingdom Plantae is the source of many drugs
and compounds.
 Source of most naturally derived drugs
 Aspirin, Digitalis, Morphine, and Caffeine
 Pharmaceutical manufacturers reproduce
hundreds of compounds first found in plants
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2 The Diversity of Life – Viruses
 A virus consists of a strand of DNA or RNA.
 Considered non-living because they are unable to
grow or reproduce without assistance from other
organisms
 Viruses hijack transcription machinery of cells to
reproduce
 Once hijacked cell cannot perform own functions
 HIV, SARS, smallpox, polio, influenza are all
caused by viruses
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3 Learning About Species – Fishing For Useful
Species
 The National Cancer Institute has employed a
brute-force approach to looking for anti-cancer
compounds.
 Receive specimens from around the world, extract
materials and screen against cancer cell lines
 One major compound, Taxol, has been identified
using this technique
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3 Learning About Species – Understanding
Ecology
 Understanding an organism’s ecology—how it lives
in its environment—can be helpful in evaluating
potentially beneficial compounds.
 Survival in extreme environments
 High levels of competition with bacteria and fungi
 Susceptibility to predation
 Ability to live on or in other organisms
 Survival in high population densities
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3 Learning About Species – Reconstructing
Evolutionary History
 A classification system reflecting evolutionary
relationships is more useful to scientists.
 An organism’s chemical traits will probably be
similar to those of its closest relative
 If looking for new compounds, could begin by
screening close relatives of organisms already
known to produce compounds
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3 Learning About Species – Reconstructing
Evolutionary History
 The challenge in making an evolutionary
classification is that organisms do not always
resemble their closest living relatives.
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3 Learning About Species – Developing
Evolutionary Classifications
 An evolutionary classification of sparrows
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3 Learning About Species – Developing
Evolutionary Classifications
 Reconstructing evolutionary history not always as
easy as the sparrow example.
 Can be confounded by loss of traits, and
convergence
 DNA provides a means of testing evolutionary
hypotheses
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3 Learning About Species – Testing Evolutionary
Classifications
 Scientists can test evolutionary hypotheses with
data from fossils and from living organisms.
 Fossils provide information about the genealogy of
different living groups
 Comparison of DNA from living organisms can also
validate or refute proposed classifications
 DNA supports vulture classification, but does not
support sparrow classification
 DNA can give clues to near relatives, but lab process
can take time
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3 Learning About Species – Learning From the
Shamans
 Often local people in biologically diverse areas
make extensive use of naturally occurring products.
 Shamans often have much knowledge of locally
useful compounds.
 Biopiracy is when local knowledge is used without
benefiting local people.
 UN Convention on Biodiversity is supposed to
address this.
 Our biodiversity represents an enormous potential,
but only if we recognize its value.
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Which of the following is a kingdom?

Animalia

Eukarya

Bacteria

Archaea
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Which of the following is a kingdom?

Animalia

Eukarya

Bacteria

Archaea
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How many species have currently been
discovered?

14,000-18,000

140,000-180,000

1.4-1.8 million

1.4-1.8 billion
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
How many species have currently been
discovered?

14,000-18,000

140,000-180,000

1.4-1.8 million

1.4-1.8 billion
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Which statement correctly describes the domain
Archaea?

Archaeans are not alive.

Archaeans are typically found in extreme
environments.

Archaeans are the simplest known eukaryotes.

Archaeans reproduce using spores.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Which statement correctly describes the domain
Archaea?

Archaeans are not alive.

Archaeans are typically found in extreme
environments.

Archaeans are the simplest known eukaryotes.

Archaeans reproduce using spores.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The kingdom Protista is made up of the simplest
known _______. An example from this kingdom
includes _______.

Prokaryotes; algae

Prokaryotes; fungi

Eukaryotes; algae

Eukaryotes; fungi
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The kingdom Protista is made up of the simplest
known _______. An example from this kingdom
includes _______.

Prokaryotes; algae

Prokaryotes; fungi

Eukaryotes; algae

Eukaryotes; fungi
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The sudden emergence of modern forms of animals
occurred during the __________.

Cambrian explosion.

Jurassic explosion.

Permian explosion.

Cenozoic explosion.
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The sudden emergence of modern forms of animals
occurred during the __________.

Cambrian explosion.

Jurassic explosion.

Permian explosion.

Cenozoic explosion.
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What is penicillin made from?

a virus

a bacteria colony

a fungus

a toxin released from certain leaves
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
What is penicillin made from?

a virus

a bacteria colony

a fungus

a toxin released from certain leaves
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
What do bioprospectors look for when they are
selecting new organisms to study?

organisms that live in extreme environments

organisms that have the ability to live in and on
other organisms

organisms that have a high level of competition

all of these answer choices
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
What do bioprospectors look for when they are
selecting new organisms to study?

organisms that live in extreme environments

organisms that have the ability to live in and on
other organisms

organisms that have a high level of competition

all of these answer choices
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Which of the following statements is incorrect?

A virus is a living strand of DNA or RNA.

A virus is surrounded by a protein capsule.

A virus hijacks cells to reproduce.

Dozens of duplicated viruses can be released from
the host cell.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Which of the following statements is incorrect?

A virus is a living strand of DNA or RNA.

A virus is surrounded by a protein capsule.

A virus hijacks cells to reproduce.

Dozens of duplicated viruses can be released from
the host cell.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
What is the name for the thin, stringy material
growing from this mushroom?

spores

hyphae

roots

mold
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
What is the name for the thin, stringy material
growing from this mushroom?

spores

hyphae

roots

mold
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Which of the following statements is incorrect?

Flower petals attract insects to the flower.

Double fertilization occurs in the flower.

Seeds are highly resistant to drying.

Fruit consists of pollen contained in a
structure that aids dispersal.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Which of the following statements is incorrect?

Flower petals attract insects to the flower.

Double fertilization occurs in the flower.

Seeds are highly resistant to drying.

Fruit consists of pollen contained in a
structure that aids dispersal.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.