Download Anatomy - August 2016

Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy
• Anatomy
• The study of the structure or form of living
things
Physiology
• Physiology
• The study of function (activities and
processes)
Human Anatomy
• Anatomy is defined as the study of the
human body
• Knowledge of anatomy used to:
– Organize a patient assessment by body
region
– Communicate effectively with other members
of the health care team
Anatomical Position
• Best described as a person standing,
facing forward, with his palms forward
Terminology
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•
•
•
Anatomical position
Supine
Prone
Lateral recumbent
Anatomic Planes
• Anterior
– Nearer to or at the front of the body
• Posterior
– Nearer to or at the back of the body
Supine Position
Prone Position
Left Lateral Recumbent
(Recovery Position)
Right Lateral Recumbent
Trendelenburg Position
Fowler’s Position
Anatomical Planes
• Sagittal plane
• Parasagittal
• Transverse or horizontal
plane
• Frontal or coronal plane
Body Regions
• Right Upper Quadrant
– Liver
– Gall bladder
– Duodenum
– Pancreas
– Part of colon
Body Regions
• Left Upper Quadrant
– Stomach
– Spleen
– Left lobe of Liver
– Body of Pancreas
– Left Kidney and
Adrenal Gland
– Parts of Colon
Body Regions
• Right Lower Quadrant
– Appendix
– Colon
– Right Ovary & Fallopian Tube
– Right Ureter
Body Regions
• Left Lower Quadrant
– Colon
– Left Ovary
– Left Fallopian Tube
– Left Ureter
Abdominal Quadrants
Body Cavities
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominal cavity
• Pelvic cavity
Tissues
• Connective
Connective is a fibrous tissue. It is one of the
four traditional classes of tissues.
Connective tissue makes up a variety of physical
structures including tendons and the connective
framework of fibers in muscles, capsules and
ligaments around joints, cartilage, bone, adipose
tissue, blood and lymphatic tissue.
Tissues
• Muscle
– Tissue that has both the ability to contract and the
ability to conduct electrical impulses. Muscles are
classified both functionally as either voluntary or
involuntary and structurally as either striated or
smooth. From this, there emerges three types of
muscles: smooth involuntary (smooth) muscle,
striated voluntary (skeletal) muscle and striated
involuntary (cardiac) muscle.
Tissues
• Nerve
– All living cells have the ability to react to stimuli.
Nervous tissue is specialized to react to stimuli and to
conduct impulses to various organs in the body which
bring about a response to the stimulus. Nerve tissue
(as in the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves that
branch throughout the body) are all made up of
specialized nerve cells called neurons.
Organ Systems
• Organ
– A structure made up of two or more kinds of
tissues organized to perform a more complex
function than can any one tissue alone
• System
– A group of organs arranged to perform a more
complex function than can any one organ alone
– Eleven major organ systems compose the human
body
Integumentary System
• Largest organ system of the body
• Functions include:
– Protection against injury
– Prevention of dehydration
– Defense against infection
– Aid in temperature regulation
Integumentary System
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Epidermis
Dermis
Hair
Nails
Glands
The Skeletal System
• Composed of:
– Bones
– Connective tissues
• Cartilage
• Tendons
• Ligaments
Axial Skeleton
• Skull
– 28 separate bones
• Hyoid bone
Axial Skeleton
• Vertebral column
– Consists of 26 bones
divided into 5 regions
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7 cervical vertebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae
5 lumbar vertebrae
1 sacral bone
– 5 fused vertebrae
• 1 coccygeal bone
– 5 fused vertebrae
Axial Skeleton
• Vertebral column
– Body
– Intervertebral disc
– Vertebral arch
– Transverse process
– Spinous process
Thoracic Cage
• Protects vital
organs in thorax
• Prevents collapse
of thorax during
respiration
• 12 pairs of ribs
• Sternum
– Manubrium
– Body
– Xiphoid process
Appendicular Skeleton
• Consists of the bones of the upper and
lower extremities and their girdles
• Pectoral girdle
– Comprised of the scapula and clavicle
– Attaches upper limbs to the axial skeleton
Upper Extremity
• Humerus
– Second largest
bone in the body
• Radius/Ulna
• Wrist
Pelvic Girdle
• Attaches legs to trunk
• Consists of two hip bones (coxae)
• Acetabulum
Femur
• Longest bone in
body
• Head articulates
with the acetabulum
• Articulates distally
with patella
Tibia
• Tibia
– Larger than fibula
and supports most
of leg's weight
– Distal end forms
lateral malleolus,
forming medial
side of ankle joint
Fibula
• Fibula
– Does not articulate
with femur
– Does articulate with
tibia
– Distal end forms
lateral malleolus,
forming lateral aspect
of ankle joint
Foot
• Consists of tarsals,
metatarsals, and
phalanges
• Talus articulates with tibia
and fibula
• Calcaneus
Biomechanics Of Body Movement
• Every bone (except the hyoid bone)
connects to at least one other bone
• Three major classifications of joints
– Fibrous joints
– Cartilaginous joints
– Synovial joints
Fibrous Joints
• Consist of two bones united by fibrous
tissue that have little or no movement
• Sutures (seams between flat bones)
Fibrous Joints
• Syndesmoses
• Gomphoses
Cartilaginous Joints
• Unites two bones by means of hyaline
cartilage (synchondroses) or fibrocartilage
(symphyses)
• Synchondroses
• Symphysis
Synovial Joints
• Contain synovial fluid
– Allow movement between
articulating bones
– Account for most joints of
appendicular skeleton
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Plane or gliding joints
Saddle joints
Hinge joints
Pivot joints
Ball-and-socket joints
Ellipsoid joints
Types of Movement
• Flexion/extension
Types of Movement
• Abduction/adduction
Types of Movement
• Medial/lateral
Types of Movement
• Circumduction
Types of Movement
• Pronation/supination
The Muscular System
• Primary functions of skeletal muscle:
– Movement
– Postural maintenance
– Heat production
Physiology of Skeletal Muscle
• Consists of contractile cells (muscle fibers)
• Each skeletal muscle fiber is filled with
thick and thin myofilaments
• Sarcomere - contractile unit of skeletal
muscle
• Contraction process
Skeletal Muscle Movement
• Results from muscle
contraction by pulling a
bone toward another
across a movable joint
• Points of attachment of
each muscle are the origin
and insertion
• Synergists
• Antagonists
• Prime mover
Types of Muscle Contraction
• Classified as either
isometric or isotonic
• Most muscle
movement is a
combination of both
isometric and isotonic
contraction
Postural Maintenance
• Results from extended periods of muscle
tension
• Muscle tone is responsible for:
– Keeping the back and the legs straight
– The head upright
– The abdomen flat
Heat Production
• Chemical reaction from the breakdown of
ATP during muscle contraction results in
some energy being lost as heat
– Largely responsible for normal body
temperature
• Shivering
The Nervous System
• A major regulatory
and coordinating
system of body
• Rapidly transmits
information by means
of nerve impulses
from one body area to
another
Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Consists of the
brain and spinal
cord, which are
continuous with
each other
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Consists of nerves and
ganglia
• 43 pairs of nerves originate
from the CNS to form PNS
– 12 pairs originate from brain
– 31 pairs originate from spinal
cord
• Afferent division
• Efferent division
– Somatic nervous system
Autonomic Nervous System
• Transmits action potentials from CNS
to:
– Smooth muscle
– Cardiac muscle
– Certain glands
Central Nervous System
• Consists of brain and spinal cord
• Major regions of the adult brain:
– Brainstem
• Medulla
• Pons
• Midbrain
– Diencephalon
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
– Cerebrum
– Cerebellum
Brain Stem
• Comprised of medulla, pons, and
midbrain
• Connects spinal cord to remainder of
brain
Medulla
• Most inferior portion
of brain stem
• Provides pathway for
both ascending and
descending nerve
tracts
• Regulates:
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Heart rate
Blood vessel diameter
Breathing
Swallowing
Vomiting
Coughing
Sneezing
Pons
• Relays information
from cerebrum to
cerebellum
• Houses sleep center
and respiratory
center
• Helps control
breathing
Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
• Smallest region of brain stem
• Involved in:
– Audio pathways in the CNS
– Visual reflexes
– Helps regulate coordination of motor activities
and muscle tone
Cerebrum
• Largest portion of brain
• Divided into right and left
hemispheres
• Each hemisphere is
divided into lobes named
for the bones that lie over
them
Cerebrum
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Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
Cerebellum
• Second largest part of human brain
• Major functions
– Motor coordination
– Compares impulses from motor cortex with
those from moving structures
– Compares intended movement with actual
movement
– Responsible for precise movements
Spinal Cord
• Location and
function
– Dorsal root
– Ventral root
– Spinal ganglia
• Primary reflex
center of the body
Meninges
• Dura matter
• Arachnoid layer
• Pia matter
The Peripheral Nervous System
• Collects information from both inside body
and body surface
– Relays information by afferent fibers to CNS
– Relays information by efferent fibers from
CNS to various parts of body
Spinal Nerves
• First pair exists between
skull and first cervical
vertebrae
• Spinal nerves in sacrum
exist in the bone
• 8 pairs exist in cervical
region
• 12 pairs exist in thoracic
region
• 5 pairs in lumbar region
• 5 pairs in sacral region
• 1 pair in coccygeal region
Dermatomes
• Each spinal nerve
(except C1) has a
specific cutaneous
sensory distribution
• Dermatome refers to
skin surface area
supplied by a single
spinal nerve
Cranial nerves
• Sensory functions
• Somatomotor
functions
• Proprioception
functions
• Parasympathetic
functions
Autonomic Nervous System
• Functions
– To maintain or
quickly restore
homeostasis
• Sympathetic and
parasympathetic
impulses affect body
in antagonistic ways
The Endocrine System
• Hormones
– Dissolved in blood
plasma and quickly
distributed throughout
the body
The Circulatory System
• Blood functions
• Blood components
– Plasma 55%
– Formed elements 45%
• Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
• Leukocytes (white blood cells)
• Thrombocytes (platelets)
Heart Anatomy
• Muscular pump
consisting of four
chambers:
– Two atria
– Two ventricles
• Cone-shaped,
approximately the
size of a closed fist
Heart Anatomy
• Located in the
mediastinum of the
thoracic cavity in
pericardial cavity
– 2/3 of heart's mass
lies left of midline of
sternum
• Pericardium
• Coronary vessels
Coronary Vessels
• Aorta
• Pulmonary trunk
• Right and left
coronary arteries
Heart Chambers and Valves
• Interatrial septum
• Interventricular
septum
• Atrioventricular
(AV) valves
– Tricuspid valve
– Mitral (bicuspid)
valve
• Semilunar valves
– Aortic and
pulmonary
semilunar valves
Conduction System of the Heart
• Sinoatrial (SA) node
• Atrioventricular (AV)
node / bundle of His
• Purkinje fibers
Normal Conduction
• Sequence of normal impulse conduction
– SA node
– Both atria
• Atrial contraction
– AV node
– Bundle of His
– Purkinje fibers
– Both ventricles
• Ventricular contraction
Blood Flow Through The Heart
Peripheral Circulation
• Flow of blood:
– Ventricles
– Arteries
– Arterioles
– Capillaries
– Venous system
The Capillary Network
• Blood supplied to capillary network by arterioles
• Blood flows through network into venules
– Flow is regulated by smooth muscle cells
(precapillary sphincters)
• Major function:
– Nutrient and product waste exchange
Arteries and Veins
• Three layers of elastic tissue comprise all
blood vessel walls (except capillaries and
venules):
– Tunica intima (inner layer)
– Tunica media (middle layer)
– Tunica adventitia (outer layer)
Types of Arteries
• Conducting arteries
– Large elastic arteries
• Distributing arteries
– Small to medium-sized
arteries
• Arterioles
– Smallest arteries
Venules
• Similar in structure to capillaries
• Collect blood from capillaries and transport
blood to small veins
• Nutrient exchange occurs across the walls
of venules
Veins
• Walls are continuous layer of
smooth muscle cells
• Medium-sized and large
veins carry blood to venous
trunks and then to the heart
• Large veins have valves that
allow blood to flow to but not
from the heart
Arteriovenous Anastomoses
(AV shunts)
• Allow blood to flow from arteries to veins
without passing through capillaries
• Natural AV shunts
• Pathological shunts
Pulmonary Circulation
• Blood from right ventricle is pumped
into pulmonary trunk
• Transport blood to respective lungs
• After exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide:
– Two pulmonary veins exit each lung and
enter the left atrium
Systemic Circulation
• Blood enters heart from pulmonary
veins
• Passes through left atrium into left
ventricle and then into aorta
• From aorta, blood pumped throughout
body
Arteries of Systemic Circulation
• Aorta
• Coronary arteries
• Arteries to the head and
neck
• Arteries of the upper and
lower limbs
• Thoracic aorta and its
branches
• Abdominal aorta and its
branches
• Arteries of the pelvis
Veins of Systemic Circulation
• Coronary veins
• Veins of the head and
neck
• Veins of the upper
and lower limbs
• Veins of thorax
• Veins of the abdomen
and pelvis
• Veins of the hepaticportal system
Lymphatic System
• Considered part of the circulatory system
• Consists of a moving fluid that comes from
the body and returns to blood
• Carries fluid away from tissues
Lymphatic System
• Functions-aids the immune system in destroying
pathogens and filtering waste so that the lymph can be
safely returned to the circulatory system.
To remove excess fluid, waste, debris, dead blood cells,
pathogens, cancer cells, and toxins from these cells and
the tissue spaces between them.
The lymphatic system also works with the circulatory
system to deliver nutrients, oxygen, and hormones from
the blood to the cells that make up the tissues of the
body.
Lymphatic System
•Components : A network of thin vessels that
branch, like blood vessels, into tissues
throughout the body. Lymphatic vessels
carry lymph, a colorless, watery fluid
originating from interstitial fluid (fluid in the
tissues) which is squeezed out of the blood
vessels. The lymphatic system transports
infection-fighting cells called lymphocytes, is
involved in the removal of foreign matter
and cell debris by phagocytes and is part of
the body's immune system.
Airway Anatomy
• Respiratory structures
are divided by their
locations relative to the
glottic opening
– Upper airway structures located
above glottis
– Lower airway structures located
below glottis
Pharynx
• Nasopharynx
– Uppermost portion of
airway, just behind
nasal cavities
– Nasal septum
– Vestibule
– Olfactory membranes
– Sinuses
Pharynx
• Oropharynx
– Begins at the level
of the uvula and
extends down to
the epiglottis
– Opens into the
oral cavity
Pharynx
• Laryngopharynx
– Extends from the tip of
the epiglottis to the
glottis and esophagus
– Lined with mucous
membrane to protect
internal surfaces
Larynx
• Three main functions:
– Air passageway between
the pharynx and lungs
– Prevents solids and
liquids from entering
respiratory tree
– Involved in speech
production
Larynx
• An outer casing of nine
cartilages
– Thyroid cartilage
– Cricoid cartilage
• Only complete cartilaginous
ring in larynx
– Epiglottis
• Hyoid bone
• Cricothyroid membrane
Larynx
• Vestibular folds (false vocal cords)
• Vocal cords (true vocal cords)
Lower Airway Structures
• Trachea
• Bronchial tree
– Primary bronchi
– Secondary bronchi
– Bronchioles
• Alveoli
• Lungs
Lungs
• Principal function is respiration
• Attached to heart by pulmonary arteries
and veins
• Separated by mediastinum and its
contents
• Base of each lung rests on the diaphragm
• Apex extends 2.5 cm above each clavicle
Pleural Cavity
• A separate pleural cavity surrounds each
lung
• Two layers (visceral and parietal)
• Pleural space
Digestive System
• Provides body with water, electrolytes, and
other cell nutrients
• Specialized to:
– Ingest food
– Propel food through the GI tract
– Absorb nutrients