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HUMAN BIOLOGY
Introduction to human evolution, morphology and
physiology
RNDr. Oldřich Sychra
Mgr. Vojtech Baláž
Doc. Jiří Klimeš
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HUMAN EVOLUTION
Africa – climatic change, Great Rift Valley, rainforest → savanna
6 (5-10)mya (=million years ago) – separation from common ancestor with
chimpanzees (99 % shared genes), hybridization
bipedal gait → erect posture → free hands
Hominids: Chad – Sahelanthropus tchadensis, „Toumai“ – 6-7 mya
Australopithecus - 4-3 mya, A. afarensis („Lucy“), D. Johanson, Ethiopia
Homo habilis – 1.9 – 1.6 mya, stone tools, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania –
Leakey family
Tertiary,
Pleistocene
Homo erectus – 1.8 mil – 200 000 yrs, first
emigrated from Africa to Europe, China,
Indonesia, hunters – gatherers, use of fire
H. neanderthalensis – 150 000 yrs, Eurasia,
robust, specialised big game hunters, Ice Age,
competition with H. sapiens, extinction 30 000 yrs
ago, hybridisation with H.sapiens still in question
H. sapiens – Africa, 200 000 yrs - present,
population contraction to 10 000 individuals,
emigration („mitochondrial Eve“), migration
through Palestine to Europe (40 000 yrs), 60
000 yrs – Australia, 20 000 yrs - America via
Bering Strait.
Burials, art (Lascaux, Altamira, „Venus of
Věstonice“), extinction of megafauna
Single evolutionary lineage for 1.7 mil yrs
Key factors in human success:
binocular vision, manipulative skills, erect posture, life in complex societies,
hierarchy, communication → speech (language), abstract thinking,
empathy, altruism
nongenetic cultural evolution (improvements in knowledge and technology
passing to next generations)
hunting→ meat (protein) → brain development → intelligence
Homo sapiens – „naked ape“ - Mammalia, Primates, Hominidae
Czech Republic sites – Štramberk, D. Věstonice,
Přerov – Předmostí
Brno – Anthropos Museum
science - anthropology
human races – Caucasian, Mongoloid, Negroid
After true H. sapiens sapiens evolved, improvements in technology are more
important for success, than changes in biological functionality.
HUMAN BODY
TISSUES
cells → tissues → organs → organ systems
Groups of similar cells with common specific function
• epithelial – superficial layers of cells
• connective – mechanical support
• muscular – most abundant, function – contraction, movement
• nervous – coordination, reception of stimuli, conduction of impulses
Science: histology (histon = tissue)
Epithelial tissue (epithelium, pl. epithelia)
sheets of closely packed cells on external / internal surfaces
simple x stratified
• squamous
cuboidal
columnar
Epithelium
• simple squamous e. – flattened (lungs, pleura, capillaries - endothelium)
• s. cuboidal e. – secretion / absorption (small ducts / tubules of glands)
• s. columnar e. – absorptive surfaces (GIT), microvilli (brush border), cilia
• stratified squamous e. – 2 to x layers, cell division beneath, abrasion
(skin, mouth, esophagus, anus, vagina)
• transitional e. – stretching: 4-5 layers →2-3 layers (urinary bladder)
• transport molecules on memebranes
• modification into glands (secretion of mucus,
enzymes, hormones)
• basement membrane
• no blood vessels
Connective tissue
loose c. t.
cartilage
dense c. t.
bone
Connective tissue
few cells + fibres embedded in matrix (ground extracellular substance)
supportive function
• collagen fibres (strong - protein, flexible, tensile strength)
• elastic fibres (thin)
• loose (areolar) c. t. – viscous fluid matrix + fixed / wandering cells
(fibroblasts, macrophages), binding / packing of tissues, organs, dermis
• dense (fibrous) c. t. – densely packed parallel bundles of fibres; tendons,
ligaments, fasciae
• cartilage – semirigid, gell-like matrix, chondrocytes, no blood supply
- ends of bones (joints), nose, ear
• bone – most rigid, osteocytes, Ca salts (calcium phosphate, hydroxylapatite)
• adipose tissue (fat)
• „fluid (vascular) tissue“ – cells, fluid matrix, no fibres
BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS
water = 50-60% adult
bw (body weight)
Transcellular fluid =
GIT (gastrointestinal tract),
glands
CSF(cerebrospinal fluid),
eye
Interstitial (intercellular) fluid = tissue fluid (+ lymph); „internal sea“
cells (tissues) take away and excrete substances from/to tissue fluid
Major electrolytes: Extra Cellular Fluids – Na+, Cl-, HCO3-;
Intra Cell.F – K+, HPO4-, protein
exchanges with environment across plasma (GIT, kidney, lungs, skin)
Homeostasis – constancy of milieu intérieur („internal environment“)
(Claude Bernard, 1813 -1878, W. B. Cannon (1871-1945)
Water makes up 45-75% of
a human body
It negatively correlates with
age and amount of fat.
Most of the water is
intracellular.
BLOOD (haema, sanguis)
Functions
• homeostasis (pH, osmotic pressure,
temperature)
• resistance (immunity)
• coagulation
• transport of respiratory gases, nutrients,
metabolites, hormones
Volume: 5 L, 8 % body weight (0.5 l loss –
safe)
Composition: blood plasma + blood cells
Science: hematology
Types of blood cells origin and function
Sickle cell
Trypanosoma sp.
BLOOD PLASMA
transparent, yellowish, pH = 7.4,
osmotic pressure = 0.9 % NaCl (saline) or 5% glucose
92 % water + protein, glucose, electrolytes - bicarbonate (NaHCO3),
gas etc.
Protein – albumin, α, β, γ-globulins (electrophoresis), fibrinogen
(coagulation)
albumin – colloid osmotic (oncotic) pressure (keeps water inside
capillaries)
HEMOSTASIS,
BLOOD COAGULATION
coagulation cascade (at least 14
factors) - prevents bleeding
endothelium damage → thrombocyte
aggregation → activation of many
factors, prothrombin → thrombin,
fibrinogen → fibrin
x anticoagulants (antithrombin,
plasminogen → plasmin)
thrombus, embolus
formation of blood clot + serum
(= plasma without fibrinogen)
Thrombocytes (platelets) – cell
fragments from megakaryocytes
(bone marrow)
Blood cells:
ERYTHROCYTES
(RED BLOOD CELLS, RBC)
RBC count: 5 mil/mm3 = 5 T.l-1
Biconcave, 7 µm, lifespan 120 days, 1 000 kms,
from erythroblasts in bone marrow, exocytosis of nucleus, production and
loss 10 million/second
Hemoglobin (Hb) – red pigment, protein, haem- Fe; O2 and CO2 transport
Blood sedimentation – non specific test – faster in infections, inflammation,
cancer
anticoagulants – heparin, citrate, EDTA (chelaton) – removal of Ca2+
Packed cell volume (PCV), or hematocrit – 45 %
WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBC), LEUKOCYTES
WBC count: 5-8 000/mm3, 5-8 G. l-1
Nucleated cells, defence +
scavengers, mobility, fluctuations
Granulocytes (PMN) polymorphic
nuclei + granules
neutrophils – bands (young),
segmented (mature)
eosinophils – acidic stain (eosin)
basophils – basic stain
Agranulocytes (MN)
Monocytes – RES (RHS), kidneyshaped nucleus
Lymphocytes – round nucleus, thin
cytoplasm
differential blood count, leukogram
NONSPECIFIC IMMUNITY (RESISTANCE)
Innate, barriers (skin, mucosa), saliva (lysozyme), HCl, phagocytosis,
fever, complement, interferons
Monocytes from bone marrow → macrophages in mononuclear
phagocyte system (= reticuloendothelial system, RES) – phagocytosis
(engulfment, digestion in lysozomes)
PMNs – phagocytosis (e.g. eosinophils increase in allergy, parasitic
infections)
Chemotaxis – movement towards chemical attractant
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZUUfdP87Ssg
Diapedesis – exit from circulating
blood
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uoSwLi_CVXs
phagocytosis
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7VQU28itVVw
SPECIFIC IMMUNITY (ACQUIRED)
Immunity = recognition and reaction against specific foreign
substances, increasing on secondary exposure (immunologic memory)
Antigen (Ag) x antibody (AB)
Ag – foreign (nonself) substance, usually glycoprotein, molecular
weight over 3000
AB - protein (immunoglobulin, Ig) produced by plasma cells
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC I, II) – e.g. rejection of graft
(transplantation). In humans also called HLA (human leucocyte
antigen). MHC I – all cells(telling what happens inside), HMC II –
antigen presenting cells (phagocytes, dendritic cells)
Cytokines (lymphokines, interleukins) – hormone-like proteins,
communication between cells, regulation of imunity response.
MHC I
MHC II
Ig isotypes (classes):
• IgM (early response, earlier in phylogeny)
• IgG (later response, later in phylogeny)
• IgA (mucous membranes)
• IgE (allergy)
Antigen presenting cell (APC)
=macrophage that displays partially
digested Ag now called epitope
(determinant) on its surface in
association with class II MHC protein
Helper T cells (TH1 or TH2 with CD4
coreceptors) are thereby activated
These cells (TH1 or TH2) activate T or B
cells, respectively
Both activation steps - also by cytokines
Natural killer cells (NK)
Humoral immunity (AB = Ig). TH2 arm
B cells (lymphocytes, B for organ where discovered - „bursa Fabricii“(in birds
only)) → plasma cells → immunoglobins production; memory B cells
Cellular immunity – T cells (lymphocytes, T for thymus). TH1 arm
Effector: cytotoxic T cells (with CD8 coreceptors). Helper T cells (TH1, TH2),
memory T cells
DISEASE
Allergy (atopy, food allergy etc.), anaphylaxis
Autoimmune diseases (multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis etc.)
Immunodeficiency (e.g. HIV - AIDS), opportune infections
IMMUNIZATION
• active (vaccination) – injection of antigenes, booster vaccination
• passive – injection of antibodies (Ig), serum – also against snake
venom etc.
Science: Immunology. Serology – diagnosis of infections by serum AB
levels
Edward Jenner (1749-1823) first vaccination, Louis Pasteur (1822 –
1895) and his followers
BLOOD GROUPS
Antigens (agglutinogens) on erythrocyte surface
x antibodies (AB) in blood plasma - inherited
Blood transfusion – compatibility - same group in
donor and recipient
Type 0 – universal donor, AB – universal
recipient
incompatibility → agglutination
Rh factor (after rhesus macaque)
Rh+ (85%), Rh- (15%)
damage to fetus if mother Rh-, fetus
Rh+ or repeated transfusions of
Rh+ blood to Rh- recipient
K. Landsteiner
J. Jánský (1907)
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Heart + blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, veins)
Artery – firm, thick
elastic walls,
smooth muscles –
vasoconstriction,
vasodilatation
Vein – thin
walls, valves
ARTERIES
Heart → periphery (high pressure,
strong walls)
Oxygenated blood
Branching: aorta → truncus
brachiocephalicus, carotids, aa.
subclaviae, aa. iliacae...
VEINS
Periphery → heart (low
pressure, valves)
Unoxygenated blood
Passive return – breathing,
muscle contractions, gravity
CAPILLARIES
Connect arteries + veins, short (0.5 mm), dense network, thin wall
– passage of gas, nutrients, metabolites. Not in epidermis, cornea,
cartilage
HEART (COR)
Pump (hollow muscle)
Pericardium – „envelope“
• Epicardium (outer surface)
• Myocardium (striated
muscle, syncytium)
• Endocardium – inner surface
2 atria, 2 ventricles, septa, tricuspid + bicuspid
(mitral) valve, semilunar valves, coronary arteries
HEART + CIRCULATION
Systole (contraction) x diastole (relaxation)
Pulse – wave spreading along arteries, frequency 70 per min
Autonomous pacemaker – sinoatrial node → AV node, bundle of His,
Purkinje fibres
+ nervous system control: sympaticus (acceleration), parasympaticus – n.
vagus (slowing down)
Auscultation – stethoscope
• systolic sound – systole, closing valves
• diastolic sound – closing of semilunar valves
• murmurs – pathologic, valve defects
Blood pressure – systolic/diastolic
120/60 mmHg, increase – risk factor
Electrocardiography (ECG), echocardiography, catheterization
CIRCULATION – systemic, pulmonary, fetal, portal
Discovery: William Harvey (1628)
Umbilical arteries (unoxygenated
blood) + veins (oxygenated b.),
foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus
(bypassing/shunting lungs), d. venosus
Portal system 2 capillary
beds
DISEASES
BLOOD
Anemia - ↓production x  loss (hemorrhage, hemolysis)
Leukopenia (e.g. in radiation disease) x leukocytosis
(infection, inflammation)
Leukemia – neoplasia(cancer) of hemopoietic tissue
HEART, CIRCULATION
Varices, phlebitis, thromboembolism (e.g. pulmonary)
Congenital malformations (persistent foramen ovale etc.)
Ischemic disease – aterosclerosis → acute myocardial
infarction, therapy: cardiopulmonary resuscitation,
bypass http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M0NF2ODfd9E
Arrhythmias (irregular pulse) – T: implanted pacemakers
Heart failure - venostasis → ascites, edema, pulmonary
edema
Science: cardiology
SPLEEN (LIEN)
Upper left abdominal cavity, spongy
structure (trabecules)
White pulp = lymphoid tissue, RES, B
+ T cells
Red pulp = blood sinuses
Function
• Blood reservoir
• „Graveyard of RBC“
• Large lymphoid organ - immunity
• Fetal erythropoiesis
• not essential for life
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
lymph vessels (lymphatics) + lymph nodes
blood plasma → tissue fluid → lymph → blood
tonsils
neck
axilla
thymus
spleen
gut
appendix
mesentery
groins
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Lymph
composition – less protein, more lymphocytes (x plasma)
function – return of excessive interstitial fluid
transport of fat absorbed in gut
slow flow
Lymph nodes – central role in body defence („filter“),
reticuloendothelial system
macrophages – removal of foreign particles (bacteria etc.) – barrier
against septicemia, sepsis
lymphocytes
DISEASE
neoplasia – malignant lymphoma, cancer metastases; lymph edema,
elephantiasis
clinical examination (enlargement), vet. medicine - meat inspecion
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN LUNGS AND BODY
TISSUES
External (pulmonary) respiration (ventilation):
air ↔ blood in alveoli (lungs)
Internal respiration: blood ↔ tissues (cells)
Cellular respiration
Ventilation – inspiration, expiration
Tidal volume (0,5 l), dead space (0,2 l), vital capacity (4 l)
difference between inhaled air x exhaled air (  CO2, ↓O2)
diffusion according to partial pressure of gases (pO2, pCO2)
alveolar air
pO2 100 mm Hg, pCO2 40 mm Hg
venous capillary blood pO2 40 mm Hg, pCO2 46 mmHg
Respiratory pigment – hemoglobin (heme + globin) – saturation with O2
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
upper airways – nasal cavity - removal of dust, warming, moisture
nostrils (nares), nasal septum, turbinate bones (conchae)
paranasal sinuses
LARYNX
cartilaginous tube
hanged on hyoid bone
inside vocal cords →
voice (voicebox)
(cartilago thyroidea,
c.cricoidea,
cc.arytenoideae)
TRACHEA
(„windpipe“)
cartilaginous rings
ciliary epithelium
mucus
TRACHEA, BRONCHI, LUNGS
lungs – paired, 3 + 2 lobes, thoracal cavity
bifurcation of trachea
mediastinum
pleura pulmonalis + parietalis
pleural space – negative
pressure
Alveoli - surface 100 m2
capillaries, surfactant
CONTROL OF
RESPIRATION
Respiratory muscles –
diaphragm, intercostal muscles
inspiration – diaphragm ↓
expiration – diaphragm 
Respiratory centre – medulla
oblongata
Interoceptors (internal sensory
receptor detecting oxygen level) –
aorta, carotids, alveoli (n. vagus)
blood pH, pO2, pCO2
PROTECTIVE REFLEXES
abrupt expiration:
sneezing (nose)
cough (larynx ↔ bronchi)
removal of irritant particles, gas etc.
DISEASE
pneumothorax – air in pleural cavity → lung collapse
respiratory infections – rhinitis (common cold), influenza, „flu“ (virus),
pneumonia (also bacteria), TBC (Mycobacterium tuberculosis),
asthma (allergy, muscular bronchoconstriction + edema, mucus),
smoking → chronic bronchitis – COPD, lung cancer
Science: pneumology, pulmonology
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
(gastrointestinal systém, GIT, alimentary canal)
Function
• reception of food (mouth)
• conduction (esophagus)
• storage, grinding, early digestion
(stomach)
• terminal digestion + absorption
(small intestine)
• concentration of solids by water
absorption (large intestine)
• removal of waste (rectum, anus)
DIGESTION – mechanical and chemical splitting of food to simple
absorbable soluble compounds http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A7jKCfx-0Mo
Digestive juices
• saliva
• gastric juice
• pancreatic juice
• bile
• (intestinal juice)
Lumen of GIT = part of external environment
GIT = largest endocrine gland in the body
GIT = largest accumulation of immune tissue in the body
LAYERS OF GIT
1 – mucosa (epithelium)
2 – muscularis mucosae
3 – submucosa
4 – muscularis – str. circulare
5 – muscularis – str. longitudinale
6 - serosa
PERITONEAL CAVITY
peritoneum – mesodermal origin
mesothelium
coelom, somatopleura +
splanchnopleura x parietal + visceral
peritoneum
mesentery
sensitive to pain + infection
ORAL (MOUTH) CAVITY
(cavum oris, stoma)
SALIVARY GLANDS
Composition of saliva
• water (99 %)
• bicarbonate (buffer)
• mucin (lubricant – swallowing)
• lysozyme (antiseptic)
• amylase (= ptyalin, in humans) – enzyme,
splits starch
Science: stomatology, dentistry
TOOTH / TEETH (dens, dentes)
crown, neck, root
occlusion surface
cementum
alveolus
mastication
2 dentitions:
• deciduous (20), dental formula:
• permanent (32), dental formula:
i1 i2 c m1 m2
i1 i2 c m1 m2
I1 I2 C P1 P2 M1 M2 M3
I1 I2 C P1 P2 M1 M2 M3
Types:
dentes incisivi (I), canini (C), praemolares
(P), molares (M)
TONGUE (lingua)
• food manipulation
mucosa
• swallowing
muscles
• taste
taste
papillae
• speaking
TONSILS
• crypts, lymphoid tissue
• barrier against infection
• adenoid
Adenoidectomy
surgical removal of
adenoids in little
children
DISEASES
• caries – bacteria
• parodontosis
• stomatitis – inflammation of mouth, often
systemic disease
• tonsillitis – bacterial, viral
• congenital (innate) diseases
- cleft palate etc.
PHARYNX
• nasopharynx (tuba auditiva or eustachian tube, choanae)
• crossing of airways + digestive canal
• epiglottis (valve)
ESOPHAGUS
in mediastinum
conduction (peristalsis) of food bolus
STOMACH (ventriculus, gaster)
• in abdominal cavity
• U-shaped tube, extensible (folds)
• glands – gastric juice (HCl, pepsin) – aggressive, barrier
• reservoir, churning (motility, waves), early digestion
• cardia, fundus, body, pylorus
HCl – acidic pH – antibacterial, activation of
pepsinogen
pepsin – enzyme (protease) – initial splitting of
proteins
MUCIN – protection of mucosa against autodigestion
PYLORUS
• gastric emptying
• fastest – carbohydrates, slowest - fat
• fine regulation – gastrointestinal hormones
REGULATION OF GASTRIC SECRETION
• cephalic phase (brain cortex, vagus, reflexes)
• gastric phase (hormone gastrin)
• intestinal phase (feedback)
Intermittent, continuous small basal secretion
DISEASES
VOMITING
• protective reflex
• nausea, salivation
• intestinal contents (yellow bile)
• risk of aspiration!!!
gastric ulcer
• bacterium Helicobacter pylori
• bleeding, perforation, cancer
•„stomach discomfort“
– motility disorders
No need for illustriation
SMALL INTESTINE (enteron, gut, bowel)
length 4 – 5 m, passage of chyme
4 – 5 hrs
• duodenum (12 inches)
• jejunum (long)
• ileum (short)
Absorption – products of digestion transferred to blood
Assimilation – nutrient transfer into cells
DUODENUM
• openings of pancreatic and hepatic ducts
(Vater’s papilla)
• receptors, hormones (secretin,
cholecystokinin, CCK)
Enlargement of absorptive surface
(to the size of a tennis court)
• plicae (folds)
• villi (finger-like projections)
LIVER (HEPAR)
Largest gland (1.5 kg), upper right abdominal
cavity, capsule, lobes, parenchyma
central metabolic organ, regeneration
bile ducts + gallbladder (vesica fellea)
Porta hepatis (Latin: porta=gateway)
Multiple functions:
• digestion (secretion of bile)
• metabolism
• storage (glycogen, fat, vitamins, Fe)
• synthesis of coagulation factors
• defence (RES - Kupffer cells)
• thermogenesis
LIVER – metabolic functions
• gluconeogenesis
• proteosynthesis
• lipogenesis
• ureosynthesis (ornithine cycle)
• biotransformation (detoxication) of drugs etc.
BILE
bitter taste, yellow-green colour
bilirubin – bile pigment, product of Hb degradation in RES,  jaundice
bile salts (=salts of bile acids) – fat emulsification within the gut
Science: hepatology
LIVER LOBULE
basic structural + functional unit
liver - double blood supply
aorta hepatica + vena portae → sinusoids → v. hepatica → v. cava
portal triad – A, PV, bile duct
cords of hepatocytes,
sinusoids
v. centralis
DISEASES:
viral hepatitis, toxic hepatitis (toadstools
etc.), cirrhosis (alcohol etc.), liver failure
(ascites, hepatic coma), jaundice (icterus) –
symptom, choleliths (gallstones)
Blood chemistry, ultrasound, biopsy
PANCREAS
both exocrine and endocrine gland
pancreatic juice
proteases (protein digestion):
• trypsinogen → trypsin
• chymotrypsinogen → chymotrypsin
lipase (fat digestion)
amylase (starch digestion)
nucleases
bicarbonate (neutralizes gastric HCl)
Proteases are secreted as inactive precursors
activated by intestinal enterokinase (cascade)
(otherwise autodigestion)
MOTILITY
smooth muscle – involuntary contractions (autonomic NS)
• segmentation – chyme moves back and forth
• peristalsis (propulsion) – chyme moves posteriorly
ENTEROCYTES
• cylindrical epithelium
• absorption of nutrients
• apical part - brush border (microvilli) – membrane enzymes
(lactase etc.)
• wear, replacement towards the tip
• halflife 2-3 days, loss – 17 billion cells per day
Mucosal lymphatic tissue
(Peyer’s patches) – immunity, lymphocytes
NUTRIENT ABSORPTION
PROTEIN → peptides (by pepsin, proteases) →
amino acids
(by membrane/brush border enzymes aminopeptidases)
CARBOHYDRATES → monosaccharides
(by amylase, membrane enzymes – sucrase,
lactase etc.)
FAT → monoglycerides + fatty acids
(by lipase, bile salts – emulsification) → micelles →
enterocytes
reesterification, exocytosis – chylomicrons
(droplets) → lacteals (lymph)
LARGE INTESTINE
length 1.5 m, passage 12 hrs
water + electrolyte absorption
crypts (= glands) – secretion of mucin
BACTERIA
• much more than in small intestine (1/3
fecal dry weight)
• fermentation of fibre, gas production,
vitamin synthesis
Colon sterile in the newborn, later
„physiological inflammation“
IMPORTANCE OF FIBRE (roughage)
• fruit, vegetables, muesli, wholemeal pastry etc.
• important for motility, mucosal health
• prevention of constipation, colorectal cancer
• animals cannot digest cellulose (lack of enzyme cellulase)!
• cellulose is digested by bacteria, symbiotic protozoa
• forestomach (cattle) or large intestine / cecum (horse, rabbit)
RECTUM + ANUS
• reservoir of feces, defecation
• 2 sphincters: smooth (internal, involuntary) x striated muscle (external,
voluntary control)
FECES
• important indicator of health
• colour – bile pigments, influence of bacteria, passage
• blood, mucus
• coprology – microscopic examination for parasite ova etc.
DISEASE
DIARRHEA (scours)
• dietary, infectious, parasitic, toxic etc.
• disturbed balance secretion x absorption
• dehydratation
infectious diarrhea
viruses, bacteria (Salmonella, Shigella), preformed bacterial toxins
(Staphylococcus); feco-oral route; danger - cholera, typhoid fever
parasitic d.
roundworms, pinworms, tapeworms
prevention – personal hygiene, sanitation
DISEASE
FLATUS
bacterial fermentation of undigested nutrients
CONSTIPATION x STRAINING (tenesmus)
EMERGENCIES – appendicitis etc. - surgery
CHRONIC - e.g. carcinoma (colorectal c. – fecal occult blood tests)
Science: gastroenterology, endoscopy
METABOLISM
• anabolism (simple substances + E → complex substances)
• catabolism (complex substances → simple substances + E)
• anabolism – energy (E) consumed
• catabolism – energy released
regulated by hormones, nerves
basal metabolism, metabolic rate
metabolic pathways + cycles
Krebs (citrate) cycle
CARBOHYDRATES (=sugars)
Source of energy, not essential, conversion to fat possible
• central role of glucose (source of energy for the cells)
• constant level (=concentration) in blood,  after meals
• excessive glucose → glycogen (polysaccharide, stored in
the liver, muscles); glycogen → glucose
• glucose → fat
• gluconeogenesis (synthesis de novo from fat, amino acids)
• glycolysis (glucose → pyruvate) → CO2 + H2O + energy
• aerobic x anaerobic g. → lactate, less ATP gain without O2
LIPIDS (=fats)
triacylglycerols (=triglycerides) → glycerol + fatty acids
glycerol
glucose
fatty acids
β-oxidation
glycolysis
Acetyl CoA
Krebs cycle (tricarboxylic
acid cycle, citric acid cycle)
storage – adipose tissueobesity
CHOLESTEROL
• cell membranes, synthesis of steroid hormones, bile acids
• source – food (animal fat) + own biosynthesis
• vegetable fat (unsaturated fatty acids) decrease absorption and
biosynthesis
LIPOPROTEINS
• high-density, low-density, very-low density lipoproteins
(HDL, LDL, VLDL). High HDL – lower risk of ischemic disease.
•  cholesterol - related to aterosclerosis, ischemic disease
PROTEINS
20 amino acids
food
Quality of animal (  ) x plant proteins (↓): vegetarians
prone to protein deficiency → combination of more
plants
rebuild tissue proteins
(proteosynthesis)
amino acid pool (blood, ECF)
trans-, deamination, use for
energy
Due to N content AA
cannot be substituted by
fat, sugars, no storage of
AA!
oxidized by regular routes
for carbohydrates, fat x
gluconeogenesis
carbon skeletons + ammonia (NH3)
urea synthesis (ornithine cycle,
liver)
urine
INTERMEDIARY METABOLISM
carbon skeletons from carbohydrate, fat,
protein catabolism
Krebs cycle
acetyl coenzyme A – strategic
intermediate in cellular
respiration
final common catabolic route
decarboxylation (CO2)
dehydrogenation (H+)
in mitochondria
oxidative phosphorylation (electron
transport, respiratory chain)
final electron acceptor – molecular oxygen
electron acceptors - NAD,
FAD
gain of 36 mol ATP
2H+ + ½ O2 + 2 e- → H2O + E (ATP)
inner mitochondrial membrane, chain of
flavoprotein + cytochrome enzymes
VITAMINS
Essential factors (usually for enzyme activity), not
synthesized by the body. Vitamin C, E, A – antioxidants.
Water-soluble
„B-complex“ - thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (nicotinic acid), pyridoxine
(B6), pantothenic acid, folic acid, cobalamin (B12), biotin (H) – yeast, liver,
milk, vegetables, legumes, meat, eggs, germ
ascorbic acid (C) – fruit, vegetables
Fat-soluble
A (retinol, axerophtol) – provitamins - carotenoids – carrots; liver, fish liver oil
D3 (cholecalciferol) – fish liver oil, UV
E (tocoferol) – germ, vegetable oil
K – vegetables
hypovitaminoses (scorbut/scurvy, beri-beri, rhachitis/rickets) x
hypervitaminoses (D, A)
MINERALS (21 elements)
Major (macroelements)
Trace (microelements)
Ca, P, Na, K, S, Mg, Cl
Fe, F, I, Zn, Cu, Se, Mn, Co, Mo
Essential Amino Acids (8 -10)
Phe, Lys, Ileu, Leu, Val, Met, Try, Thre, Arg, His
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
Arachidonic, linoleic, linolenic
Malnutrition x diseases of affluence (obesity, cancer, cardiovascular disease).
Growth, pregnancy, lactation -  requirements
URINARY (EXCRETORY) SYSTEM
excretion of noxious/unnecessary substances, osmoregulation, maintenance
of homeostasis
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
KIDNEY
Nephron
= (glomerulus + Bowman’s capsule)
basic structural and functional unit
glomerular filtration → primary urine
(isotonic ultrafiltrate)
150 – 200 l/24 hrs
concentration x dilution by
tubular reabsorption, secretion →
definitive urine (1.5 l)
(iso-, hypo- or hypertonic)
URINARY SYSTEM
Urinary bladder (vesica urinaria)
extension to 0.5 – 0.7 l, 2 sphincters (smooth muscle – involuntary,
striated – voluntary urination)
Urethra – 5x longer in males
Urine – 1 – 2 l per day
urea - ureotely (x birds, reptiles)
DISEASES
uroliths (stones), inflammation - (glomerulo)nephritis, cystitis
renal failure – acute (infectious, toxic) x chronic - dialysis, transplantation
urinalysis – protein, blood, cells, crystals (sediment)
blood chemistry, cystoscopy
Science: urology, nephrology
SKIN (derma, cutis, integument)
epidermis (ectoderm)
dermis, corium (mesoderm)
subcutis (mesoderm)
Function
• protection (UV, pathogens)
• thermoregulation
• sensory function
• excretion (glands), storage
Epidermis – no vessels, stratified
epithelium
• deep – growth, melanin,
• upper - keratinized, wear
(desquamation) - dandruff
papillary lines - dactyloscopy
Corium
connective tissue, vessels, nerves, receptors
pain – nerve fibre endings
touch – Meissner’s corpuscles
temperature – Krause’s (cold), Ruffini’s (heat) corpuscles
Subcutis
connective tissue, fat (insulation, depot), receptors – Pacinian corpuscles
(pressure, tension)
Skin (epidermal) derivatives – hair, nails, glands
Hair – dead keratinized structure, growth from hair follicles. Musculi
arectores pili.
sebaceous (oil) glands – sebum
sweat (eccrine) glands – axilla, hands, feet – sweat (sudor) – 99 % water;
NaCl (loss)
apocrine glands – armpit, pubic regions (adults) – sexual pheromones?
Mammary gland
derived from sweat glands
males - rudimentary
puberty - development ← female
sexual hormones
secretion – colostrum, milk (lac)
lactation
alveoli, tubules, ducts, nipple, fat
SKIN DISEASES:
dermatitis, eczema, neoplasia (UV radiation), ectoparasites (scabies),
allergy, burns, frostbite, fungal, bacterial, viral infections (herpesviruses,
measles etc.) and other systemic diseases
breast cancer
Science: dermatology
THERMOREGULATION
Endothermy = homeothermy, „warm-blooded“
constant body temperature about 37°C, ↓ hypothermy,  hyperthermy
Higher in the evening, during ovulation (armpit – 36.5°C)
balance between production x loss of heat
Production: metabolism (muscles, liver), muscle tone, shivering,
exercise. Nonshivering thermogenesis – brown adipose tissue
(newborn).
Loss: radiation (vasodilatation), evaporation (sweat, respiration)
conduction (wind). Insulation – in cold environment.
„Thermostat“ (control of body temperature) – hypothalamus
pyrogenic substances (bacteria etc.) → fever (pyrexia)
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
humoral regulation (chemical coordination)
Hormones
secreted into blood, distant target cells
source:
• endocrine (=ductless) glands
• neurosecretory cells
• tissue cells
receptors – cytoplasmic + nuclear (steroids, T4)
or membrane-bound + cAMP as second
messenger (peptides, adrenaline)
hierarchy of e. glands:
hypothalamus – pituitary - adrenal axis
negative x positive feedback
HYPOTHALAMUS – PITUITARY GLAND
(hypophysis – adeno-, neurohypophysis)
HYPOTHALAMUS - PITUITARY
H: releasing hormones (liberins) x release-inhibiting hormones (statins) –
e.g. GnRH
AP: tropic hormones
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) → adrenal glands
thyroid-stimulating h. (TSH)= thyrotropin → thyroid g.
gonadotropins → gonads (sexual glands)
follicle-stimulating h. (FSH) →ovary (follicle maturation, estrogen production)
→ testicles (sperm production - spermiogenesis)
luteinizing h. (LH) → ovary (ovulation, corpus luteum growth, progesterone
production)
→ testicles (testosteron production in Leydig’s cells)
Prolactin → mammary gland (growth, milk production), parental behaviour
Anterior pituitary
Growth hormone (GH) = somatotropin – growth (also via
hepatic somatomedin or insulin-like growth factor, IGF)
 GH – giantism, acromegaly (after puberty), ↓GH – dwarfism
Melanocyte-stimulating h. (MSH) – function?, precursor POMC
Hypothalamus → posterior pituitary
Oxytocin – uterus (parturition – contractions), mammary gland (milk ejection)
Vasopressin or antidiuretic h. (ADH) – kidney (  tubular water reabsorption)
Pineal gland (epiphysis)
melatonin – circadian rhythms
Thyroid gland
neck, follicles, iodine
thyroxine (T4) → triiodothyronine (T3) –  growth, NS (young),  metabolic
rate – ↓ efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation +  heat production
↓ cretinism,  Basedow’s disease (exophthalmos, excitation,  pulse), goitre
Thyroid gland
calcitonin – ↓Ca blood level
Parathyroid glands
near thyroid, lenticular shape + size
parathormone (PTH) – regulation of Ca blood level
 - decalcification of bones, ↓ - tetany
Adrenal (suprarenal) glands - cortex
corticosteroids – gluco-, (cortisol, corticosteron), mineralocorticoids
(aldosterone), androgens
Glucocorticoids – stress, protein catabolism, lipomobilization,  glucose
(gluconeogenesis), antiinflammatory, ↓ resistance to infection
Aldosterone – Na+ renal tubular reabsorption, K+ excretion
corticosteroids – simple molecule → not species-specific, oral application
Adrenal glands – medulla
„large sympathetic ganglion“
epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline) – preparation for
fight or flight, stress response –  circulatory output, blood pressure, pulse
frequency, metabolic effects like cortisol
Pancreas – islets of Langerhans
insulin – glucose uptake by cells, lipogenesis etc.
polypeptide – oral intake impossible, allergy
 insulin – ↓ glycemia – spasms, shock, death (insulinoma)
↓ insulin – diabetes mellitus
glucagon – antagonist
Testicles (testes)
Interstitial (Leydig’s) cells –
androgens (testosterone) –
male accessory sex structures, secondary sex characters, anabolic effects,
stops bone prolongation. Sertoli cells - inhibin
Ovaries
graafian follicles – estrogens (estradiol), inhibin – menstrual cycle
corpus luteum – gestagens (progesterone) – preparation for pregnancy
(gestation) (uterine mucosal development), mammary gland, stops
maturation of follicles
use in contraception
Placenta
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) – maintains corpus luteum
Human placental lactogen (hPL), progesterone, estrogens, relaxin
GIT – gastrin, CCK, secretin etc.
Kidneys – erythropoietin, renin (via angiotensin -blood pressure control etc.),
calcitriol (1,25-diihydroxycholecalciferol)
Heart – atrial natriuretic peptide
CNS – endorphins, enkephalins (neuropeptides – pleasure, pain)
Adipose (fat) tissue – leptin → brain (satiety, eating behaviour, energy
balance)
NERVOUS SYSTEM (NS)
Schwann
cells
Neuron (nerve cell) – functional unit of NS
30 mld, high specialization → no division
thicker myelin sheath – more rapid conduction
efferent + afferent fibres, nerves = wrapped bundles of axons
(Neuro)glial cells – supportive function (nutrition of neurons etc.)
REFLEX ARC
stimulus → receptor → nerve impulse → centre → effector
receptor → centre – afferent (sensory) nerve
centre → effector – efferent (motor) nerve
I. P. Pavlov – non conditioned (innate), conditioned
reflexes – temporary associations, reinforcement
1st signal system (signal = stimulus), instincts
stretch reflex („knee jerk“)
2nd signal system – stimulus = word – abstract
thinking, „higher nervous activity“
NERVE IMPULSE (ACTION POTENTIAL)
Inside – much more K+, much less Na+
than outside
Membrane selectively permeable to K+,
no permeability to Na+ → concentration
+ electrical gradients
action potential – self propagating
depolarization = conduction
influx of Na+ - electrical „hole“
repolarization (return to resting
potential) – Na+/K+ exchange pump active transport, energy (ATP)
consumption
threshold stimulus – „all-or-none“ phenomenon
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yrsJ9HlnZ5s
SYNAPSE (junction between nerves)
http://www.y
outube.com/
watch?v=HX
x9qlJetSU
postsynaptic
excitatory
potential
• excitatory neurotransmitters – acetylcholine
• inhibitory neurotransmitters – GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)
acetylcholine destroyed by acetycholinesterase – otherwise indefinite
stimulation (if esterase is blocked by toxins – organophosphate insecticides)
CENTRAL + PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
= CNS (brain + spinal cord) + peripheral nerves (somatic afferent/sensory + efferent/motor + autonomic)
Spinal cord
grey matter – neurons
white matter – ascendent +
descendent nerve tracts (bundles)
(pyramidal, extrapyramidal)
SPINAL NERVES – 31 pairs
segmentation
(metamery)
cauda equina
exit –
intervertebral
openings
Nervus ischiadicus
BRAIN (encephalon)
Prosencephalon or forebrain (smell) → telencephalon + diencephalon
Mesencephalon or midbrain (sight)
Rhombencephalon or hindbrain (hearing) → cerebellum + medulla oblongata
BRAIN
Telencephalon or cerebrum – conscientious perception, voluntary
movements. Large, hemispheres + corpus callosum, small olfactory lobes
Diencephalon – thalamus („relay station“) + hypothalamus (homeostasis,
thermoregulation). Limbic system – instincts, sex, emotions.
Mesencephalon – relay centre, originally vision, hearing (tectum, optic lobes,
corpora quadrigemina)
Pons (Varoli) – connections (Latin pons = bridge)
Cerebellum – movement integration, muscle tone, posture, equilibrium.
Purkinje cells.
Medulla oblongata – vasomotor + respiratory control
Reticular formation of brain stem – vital functions, activation of cortex
BRAIN CORTEX
Superior centre, higher mental activities, mind
Phylogenetically youngest part (neocortex= neopallium x paleocortex=
archipallium)
Hemisphere specialization, control of opposite side of the body (crossing
of pyramidal tract)
Grey matter 0.5 cm thick, 6 cell layers, lobes, gyri
Motor + sensory areas – pyramidal cells, Broca area – speech, skin
sensitivity, hearing, sight (occipital lobe) etc.
Association („silent“) areas – memory, judgement, reasoning
MENINGES (sg. meninx)
Pachymeninx, leptomeninx
3 membranes enveloping brain (+ spinal cord) – dura mater, arachnoidea, pia mater
Cerebrospinal fliud (CSF) – produced in
choroid plexus, 4 ventricles, canals
hematoencephalic barrier
CRANIAL NERVES – 12 pairs
Nuclei (aggregations
of nerve cell bodies)
in brain stem
exits - openings in
skull
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sympaticus – ganglion chain,
parasympaticus – n. vagus.
Antagonism, ganglia (groups of nerve cells). Plexuses.
Neurotransmitters:
parasympaticus, preganglionic sympaticus - acetylcholine,
postganglionic sympaticus – norepinephrine
DISEASE
Hyperfunction – spasms, cramps, convulsions x hypofunction - paralysis,
paresis
• innate – congenital malformations (hydrocephalus)
• traumatic (broken vertebrae), slipped discs
• toxic – kurare, strychnin, snake venom, bacterial toxins (tetanus, botulism)
• stroke (brain hemorrhage or thrombus - ischemia) → paralysis
• (meningo)encephalitis (viral – rabies, tick-borne e., bacterial e.)
• parkinsonism (shivering), Alzheimer’s disease, Creuzfeldt – Jacob’s dis.
• epilepsy (seizures, convulsions)
• multiple sclerosis
• neuritis (nerve inflammation – pain, paralysis)
• mental disease – schizophreny, autism etc.
Science: neurology, psychiatry
SENSE ORGANS
impulse → receptor → afferent (ascendent) sensory nerve → brain (cortex)
receptors
• exteroceptors (external environmenet)
• interoceptors (internal organs)
• proprioceptor (muscles, tendons, joints)
VISION (SIGHT)
THE EYE (oculus, ophthalmos)
Orbite
rethrobulbar tissue
exo-, enophthalmos
Bulbus (eyeball)
miosis
Photoreception
mydriasis
EM waves
corpus ciliare
400 – 700 nm
aqueous humour
vitreous humour
choroid
OPTICAL SYSTEM
camera-type eye
refraction of light beam on the interfaces of cornea, aqueous humour,
lens, vitreous humour
sharp, inverse, reduced image projected on retina
focusing (accommodation) – lens shape controled by ciliary muscle
binocular, 3-colour vision
adaptation to darkness – 25 min
Refraction defects
(lens shape, optic axis length)
hypermetropy (far sight)
myopy (short sight)
astigmatism (blurred/double vision)
corrected by lenses (spectacles)
RETINA
pigment cells
rods – black and white vision, 125 mil
cones – colour vision, 1 mil
pigment rhodopsin = opsin + retinal (vitamin
A derivative)
„blind spot“ – optic nerve exit
fovea centralis – highest density of
cones, keenest vision
chiasma opticum
eye movements – 3 pairs of oculomotor muscles
sleep – REM phase (nystagmus)
strabism (squint) – malfunction of oculomotor
nerves
lacrimal gland → tears → protection from drying,
lysozyme - antibacterial
Eyelids, eyelashes, conjunctiva (mucosa) – colour,
clinical examination
DISEASE
conjunctivitis, cataract, glaucoma (  intraocular
pressure), blindness, colour blindness
Science: ophthalmology
HEARING – THE EAR
cerumen
glands
sound waves
frequency
16 – 20 000 Hz
http://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=7Oadw-HyrQ
3 ear ossicles
derived from
gill arches,
reptilian jaw
anvil
hammer
stirrup
HEARING + EQUILIBRIUM
INNER EAR - COCHLEA + VESTIBULAR APPARATUS
saccule +
utricle –
static balance,
stony
accretions
oval + round
window
semicircular
canals –
kinetic balance
(rotational
acceleration)
organ of Corti
DISEASES: „earache“ - otitis media, deafness
Science: otorhinolaryngology
perilymph,
endolymph
hair cells
CHEMORECEPTION - SMELL
Olfactory epithelium
olfactory receptor cells
CHEMORECEPTION - TASTE
Taste papillae
+ smell
Tongue – 4 categories
of taste
taste bud – receptor cells
MUSCLE
smooth muscle
striated skeletal muscle
striated cardiac
muscle
(myocardium)
SKELETAL MUSCLE
Muscle fascicles (bundles), m. fibres (cells),
myofibrils
sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticulum – Ca2+
T-tubules, neuromuscular junction (synapse)
Oxygen debt. Inactivity → atrophy. Tendons,
fasciae.
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Z line, actin + myosin filaments, troponin, tropomyosin, Ca2+, ATP consumption
sarcomere
energy reserve – creatine phosphate: CP + ADP → ATP + C
http://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=gJ309LfHQ3M
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Axial skeleton – skull + backbone
+ rib cage (ribs + sternum)
Appendicular skeleton – limbs,
pectoral + pelvic girdles
Neurocranium, splanchnocranium
Science: orthopedics
VERTEBRAL COLUMN (BACKBONE), VERTEBRAE
Vertebral body, spinal canal,
intervertebral discs (nucleus
pulposus – notochord)
Skyphosis,
lordosis,
scoliosis
JOINT (ARTICULATION)
Hip joint - ball-and-socket type
Knee joint – patella, menisci
STRUCTURE OF BONE
Spongy (cancellous) + compact bone, periosteum, osteon (haversian
system), osteocytes in lacunae, endochondral ossification, constant
remodelling, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteoporosis after menopause →
fracture
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Sperm cells – spermatogenesis in seminiferous tubules of testes
Penis, prepuce, corpora
cavernosa, bulbourethral
glands, erection, semen
ejaculation
Science: sexuology, andrology (in vet. med.)
74 days, 120 mil cells per ml
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Ovary, oviduct (uterine tube, fallopian tube), uterus simplex, cervix, vagina,
vulva, labia minora + majora, clitoris, hymen
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
300-400 mature oocytes, graafian (mature)
follicle → corpus luteum (= „yellow body“),
fertilization, cleavage
endometrium: proliferative – secretory
– menstrual phase
PREGNANCY, PLACENTA
Blastocyst, implantation (6 d), trophoblast, amnion, chorion, placenta,
embryo, organogenesis, fetus (9 weeks), parturition – prostaglandins,
oxytocin etc., labour, dilation, expulsion, placental (afterbirth) delivery,
puerperium
Science: gynaecology, obstetrics
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION