Download Baldwin B

84
AFBM Journal, 2004 –1(1):84-92, B Baldwin
The potential for hazelnut production in Australia
B Baldwin
The University of Sydney, Faculty of Rural Management, PO Box 2424, Orange NSW Australia.
Email: [email protected]
Contents
Introduction
Markets and Marketing Issues
Climatic requirements
Cultivars
Conclusions
References
Abstract. Very few hazelnuts are produced in Australia, yet we import more than 1800 tonnes of
kernels valued at more than $10 million per annum. Hazelnuts are a deciduous tree crop, that
requires mild temperatures, well-drained soils and good soil moisture. Although Australia
generally has a semi arid climate, climate comparisons for some areas in South-eastern Australia,
compared with key production areas in the northern hemisphere, indicate there are areas in
Australia with a suitable climate.
Field evaluation of a range of cultivars and grower selections indicates some genotypes with
potential for Australian conditions. Yields recorded for young trees grown at Myrtleford in
northeastern Victoria compare very favourably with commercial yields in some of the highest
producing regions in the world. Technology and equipment is available overseas for crop
mechanisation.
It is concluded that hazelnuts are a crop with potential for select parts of Australia, but key
elements for success will be growers working collaboratively to develop a productive, highly
efficient industry with good marketing strategies.
Keywords: Climatic requirements, soils, markets, cultivars, nut yields, hazelnuts.
Introduction
Although hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.)
were introduced into Australia over 100
years ago, to date they have only been
grown on a relatively small scale.
Current annual production is estimated
to be approximately 25 tonnes of in-shell
nuts. However, there appears to be an
opportunity for considerable expansion
Figure 1 Volume of hazelnut imports into Australia,
1994-2001
of the local industry, as about 1800
tonnes
of
kernels,
valued
over
$10million, are imported into Australia
annually (ABS 2002), as observed in
Figure 1 and Figure 2.
It is considered that the establishment of
a local industry could complement
Figure 2 Value of hazelnut imports into Australia,
In-shell
Shelled
Volume of hazelnut imports
14000
$A 000's/annum
1500
1000
500
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
Years
Source: ABS 2002
http://www.afbmnetwork.orange.usyd.edu.au/afbmjournal/
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
0
1995
0
1994
Tonnes per annum
2500
2000
In-shell
Shelled
Value of imported hazelnuts
Years
1994-2001
Source: ABS 2002
© AFBMNetwork-CST04-01-01
85
AFBM Journal, 2004 –1(1):84-92, B Baldwin
overseas
production
through
the
provision of fresh, locally grown nuts
which could be stored in shell, at a
relatively low cost and cracked as
required to supply fresh kernels for local
processors and consumers. Major users
of hazelnuts in Europe are also
interested in obtaining product from
Australia, provided the nuts or kernels
are of appropriate quality and are
available in sufficient quantities. There is
particular interest in organically grown
nuts. As few of the major pests and
diseases
of
hazelnuts have been
introduced into Australia, organic or
pesticide free production should be
feasible.
In order to capitalise on these market
opportunities, there is a need to evaluate
appropriate
varieties
and
develop
efficient production systems.
To be
competitive and gain labour efficiencies,
growers need to mechanise harvesting
and post-harvest handling.
Although
opportunities exist for growers to market
their own produce, as production
expands and smaller market niches are
satisfied there will be a need for growers
to develop strategic alliances with major
buyers.
Markets and marketing issues
Hazelnuts are marketed as two products,
nuts in-shell and kernels. Nuts in-shell,
marketed mainly for home or table
consumption, account for less than 10%
of the total market (Figure 1). Most
hazelnuts are cracked and sold as
kernels, which can be eaten fresh, but
the vast majority are either blanched or
roasted and then used in confectionery
products, cakes and biscuits. Hazelnuts
are highly nutritious and can be used for
a wide range of purposes, such as in
muesli, salads and as a compliment to
many food dishes.
The major centre of hazelnut production
in the world is in northern Turkey, on the
Black Sea coast.
There are other
important production areas in Italy,
Spain and Oregon, USA.
The nuts
http://www.afbmnetwork.orange.usyd.edu.au/afbmjournal/
produced by the Turkish and European
growers are commonly stored on farm
and then sold during the year to
operators of cracking plants.
The
cracked kernels are size-graded and
placed in plastic vacuum packs for use
by processors and for export.
Major constraints to the development of
the local industry are the lack of
knowledge on the performance of
introduced varieties and local seedling
types as well as on the best localities
and soils for hazelnut production.
Climatic requirements
Hazelnut production is favoured by a
mild climate with a cool winter and mild
summer, such as is found in the coastal
and some upland areas of south-eastern
Australia. Hazelnut trees have a poor
tolerance to heat, wind and moisture
stress,
but
have
moderate
frost
tolerance (Tous Marti 2001).
The tree is deciduous and is wind
pollinated.
The male catkins, formed
during late summer and autumn,
elongate in winter and shed pollen,
which is carried on the wind to the small
female flowers. When receptive, these
female flowers appear as small buds with
reddish tufts of filaments (stigmas) at
their tips. Pollen and female flowers can
tolerate temperatures down to -10oC
(Tous Marti 2001). Both catkins and
female flowers are borne on the same
plant, but hazelnuts are not self-fertile.
Although pollination occurs in the winter,
fertilisation does not take place until
early summer when the embryo (kernel)
develops within the shell (Germain
1994). At this stage, late November and
early December in Australia, if maximum
temperatures are less than 21oC for
three or more days, development of
fertilized embryo can cease, resulting in
blank or empty nuts (Tous Marti 2001).
The mature nuts ripen in late summer
and, in most varieties, fall from their
husks to the ground during March. As a
deciduous
tree
hazelnuts
require
sufficient chilling in the winter to
© AFBMNetwork-CST04-01-01
86
AFBM Journal, 2004 –1(1):84-92, B Baldwin
overcome dormancy in catkins, female
flowers and vegetative buds. Chill hours
(0-7oC) are greatest for leaf buds and
vary with cultivars ranging from about
600 hours for Tonda di Giffoni to 1500
hours for Casina (Mehlenbacher, 1991).
The
main
northern
hemisphere
production areas have a Mediterraneantype climate and are in the latitude
range 40o to 45oN. The climate of
locations in Australia where hazelnut
groves
have
been
successfully
established
generally
compares
favourably
with
major
northern
hemisphere production areas (Figure 3).
The temperature for Corvalis in the
Willamette Valley, which is the major
centre for production in the USA, is
similar to that for Orange on the Central
Tablelands of NSW and Myrtleford in
north–eastern Victoria. However, rainfall
at Corvalis is strongly winter dominant,
compared with Orange and Myrtleford,
where it is lower, but more evenly
spread throughout the year.
A contrasting pattern is at Reus, in
Spain, near Camp de Tarragona, another
significant
centre
for
hazelnut
production. Winter temperatures at Reus
are similar to those in southern Italy,
where hazelnuts are also grown. Similar
mild winter climates are found in
maritime locations, such as Kingston in
southern Tasmania, the south coast of
NSW and even the southern highlands as
represented by Moss Vale. The summer
temperatures experienced in Tasmania
are quite cool in comparison with most
overseas
localities
and
mainland
Australia. The implications for low
maximum temperatures in November
and December on kernel development
are yet to be assessed. It appears that
some cultivars are less sensitive to cool
temperatures
at
this
stage
of
development than others (Germain
1994).
In Oregon, hazelnuts are grown on deep
alluvial loam soils, where they are grown
as a dryland crop on a mean annual
rainfall of about 1000mm. At Reus
http://www.afbmnetwork.orange.usyd.edu.au/afbmjournal/
(Camp de Tarragona), where the mean
annual rainfall is less than 600mm,
hazelnuts are grown as an irrigated crop.
An average of 2.5 ML/ha of water is
applied.
Rainfall data for other centres of
production (Tous Marti 2001) suggests
that about 850 mm of annual rainfall is
about the minimum necessary for
dryland
commercial
production.
However, if soils are not deep and
rainfall is erratic, as is frequently
experienced in Australia, supplementary
irrigation is beneficial as hazelnuts are
very sensitive to moisture stress.
Irrigation experiments in the Argen
region of France (annual average rainfall
700-800mm) have shown benefits from
irrigating through the period of kernel
development when periods of moisture
stress have occurred (Mingeau et al,
1994). This is late November to late
February in Australia.
Nuts fall from the trees in March and
they are harvested from the ground by
suction or pick-up harvesters in most
countries, except Turkey where they are
hand picked. For mechanical harvesting,
the land needs to be smooth with any
grass cut extremely short if the
equipment is to work efficiently. It is
considered highly desirable that rainfall
in February and March is low, so grass
growth in the orchard is not stimulated
and the nuts can be harvested dry.
Although hazelnuts have been grown
successfully on the Northern Tablelands
of NSW (Trimmer 1965), this area is
more prone to summer- autumn rain and
is considered less suitable due to
potential harvesting problems.
Cultivars
Selecting the most appropriate hazelnut
cultivar for planting is a very important
commercial decision. Establishing an
orchard involves an outlay of at least
$7000/ha, for land preparation, planting
material and irrigation within the orchard
(Baldwin 1998). This does not include
the purchase price of land or the
© AFBMNetwork-CST04-01-01
87
AFBM Journal, 2004 –1(1):84-92, B Baldwin
Figure 3. Comparisons of climate for two key centres of production in the Northern Hemisphere compared with
potential production areas in Australia
100
10
50
5
0
15
10
5
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
0
20
Orange, NSW
Rain
Max temp
Min temp
30
10
Temp oC
100
Rain (mm)
15
50
5
0
10
10
50
5
0
0
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
0
Kingston, Tas
Rain
Max temp
Min temp
30
200
25
Temp oC
100
Precipitation (mm)
15
50
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
150
20
100
15
0
Precipitation
Mean max
Mean min
200
25
150
20
5
0
Moss Vale (976 mm)
Temp oC
200
25
150
20
30
Rain
Max temp
Min temp
30
200
25
Temp oC
Myrtleford, Vic
Precipitation (mm )
15
25
150
20
15
100
10
50
5
0
Rain (mm)
20
Precipitation (mm)
150
30
Prec ipitation
Mean max
Mean min
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Temp (C)
25
Corvalis, Oregon (1092mm)
Temp (C)
30
Precipitation
Mean max
Mean min
200
Precipitation (mm)
Reus, Spain (588mm)
Sources: Bureau of Meterology, 2004 Oregon: Taylor, GH. 1991
Reus: Castillo and Beltran, 1977.
http://www.afbmnetwork.orange.usyd.edu.au/afbmjournal/
© AFBMNetwork-CST04-01-01
88
AFBM Journal, 2004 –1(1):84-92, B Baldwin
provision of irrigation water to the
orchard site. There are two main aspects
that have to be considered in cultivar
selection: the productivity of the trees
and the marketability of the nuts. The
cultivars
planted
should
be
both
productive and of a type for which there
is a market demand. The greatest
demand is for kernels.
In order to assist potential growers and
investors select appropriate cultivars, a
research project has been initiated within
the Faculty of Rural Management in
conjunction with growers and state
government departments across a range
of sites in southeastern Australia.
Funding for the research has been
provided
by
the Rural
Industries
Research and Development Corporation.
The key objectives of the research are
to:
•
used for the establishment of a
hazelnut industry in southeastern
Australia.
•
Assess the effects of geographical
region and climate on hazelnut
production
and
varietal
performance.
•
Assess the productive potential of
hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.) in
Australia.
Five variety trials have been established
in southeastern Australia in locations
where it is considered that hazelnuts
could be grown. The five sites represent
different
rainfall
and
temperature
patterns as well as different soil types.
Two sites are in NSW, Orange and Moss
Vale, two in Victoria, Myrtleford and
Toolangi and one in southern Tasmania
at Kettering, near Kingston (Figure 4).
Determine the most suitable
hazelnut varieties that could be
Figure 4. Locations of the five hazelnut cultivar sites in south-eastern Australia. In the Northern Hemisphere,
main production areas lie in the latitude range 40–45oN
http://www.afbmnetwork.orange.usyd.edu.au/afbmjournal/
© AFBMNetwork-CST04-01-01
89
AFBM Journal, 2004 –1(1):84-92, B Baldwin
The principal objective of selecting the
range of locations was to ascertain
whether there were any interactions
between cultivar and climate.
It is
recognised that, in addition to climatic
variation, the sites differ with respect to
soil, which may compound climatic
effects. The soil differences have been
assessed and monitored. Standard
procedures for site management have
been implemented, as much as it is
possible, to minimise variation due to
management practices.
The soil profile at each site has been
described from soil samples taken down
to 600mm depth.
The soils at both
Orange
and
Toolangi
have
been
developed from basalt, which has
weathered to form deep, red krasnozem
soils. The soil at Myrtleford is alluvial
and is situated on a relatively recent
floodplain or terrace. It is deep and
well-drained; it has a coarser texture
than the krasnozem. The Moss Vale site
is on a red podsol and the Kettering site
is on a grey podsol. The podsolic soils
typically have a duplex profile with a
heavier textured subsoil or B horizon
which
has
poorer
drainage
characteristics than the A horizon,
particularly at Kettering.
Soil samples were taken across each of
the sites from the top 10cm of soil and
analyzed to determine pH and the
availability of soil nutrients. All sites
were found to be slightly acid. As the
growth and production of hazelnuts is
favoured by pH 6-6.5 (Olsen, 1995) all
sites had five tonnes/ha of ground
limestone applied before planting, except
Myrtleford, where 7 tonnes/ha was
applied.
A total of 25 hazelnut genotypes are
under
evaluation
for
growth
and
productivity. They are mainly those
suited to the kernel market, but also
include cultivars suited to the in-shell
trade and others whose main role is as
pollinisers. The genotypes are mainly
named cultivars of European and North
American origin, but also include some
http://www.afbmnetwork.orange.usyd.edu.au/afbmjournal/
Australian grower selections that have
been given local names. The planting
material was obtained chiefly from
specialist hazelnut propagators.
Planting at the Orange and Toolangi sites
was commenced in July 1995. Planting
commenced at Myrtleford and Moss Vale
in July 1996 and at Kettering in
1999.The genotypes are replicated at
each site in a randomized block layout.
Tree spacing is 5m between rows and
3m within rows.
Periods of pollen shed and female bloom
and the relative numbers of catkins per
variety have been recorded annually.
The dates when the vegetative buds
started to open, indicating the start of
leafing out, have also been recorded.
General observations of tree growth
have been made throughout the period
of the experiment. Leaf samples have
been collected from each site in February
to monitor the nutritional status of the
crop. In April of each year, the butt
circumferences of all treatment trees
have been measured 15 cm above the
ground. These measurements have been
used to make comparisons of tree
growth between years and varieties.
Nut yields have generally been obtained
by collecting all the fallen nuts from
under the trees in late summer to early
autumn. The nuts have been dried at
30oC for two to three days, then cleaned
and any husks removed before weighing.
Post harvest assessments of kernel
quality have been conducted.
Observations
•
Trees have grown best at Myrtleford
and least well at Orange. Plants of
some genotypes died at Orange.
These were replaced, but the
replacements also died or struggled
to grow. Very high levels of
manganese were detected in the leaf
samples from Orange (Figure 5),
whereas the levels of manganese
were far lower at Myrtleford and
were also low at Toolangi and
Kettering. Tree growth has been
© AFBMNetwork-CST04-01-01
90
AFBM Journal, 2004 –1(1):84-92, B Baldwin
good at both of those sites. It is
hypothesized
that
manganese
toxicity may account for poor tree
growth at Orange, with differential
tolerance occurring in genotypes.
Such variation in tolerance has been
recorded for other crops, such as
lucerne (Sale et al, 1993.).
not true to cultivar name. At Orange,
the
disease
bacterial
blight
((Xanthomonas corylina) has been
prevalent, causing severe damage to
newly emerging leaves in early
spring. It appears to affect early
leafing cultivars, such as Tonda di
Giffoni, more than late leafing types,
such as Ennis. This may account for
the relatively lower yield of Tonda di
Giffoni, compared with Ennis. The
new cultivar Lewis, which was bred
at the Oregon State University, was
planted at later date as material was
not available at the commencement
of the experiment. This cultivar also
looks promising.
Cultivar productivity
The cultivar Barcelona has given
consistently high yields at all sites,
being one of the four highest yielding
cultivars (Baldwin et al. 2003.). The
Australian
selection
Tokolyi/Brownfield Cosford (TBC) has
also generally produced high yields
and was consistently the highest
producing cultivar at Moss Vale
(Figure 6) and in the top two at
Toolangi. Tonda di Giffoni has
performed very well at Moss Vale.
and at Myrtleford. A cultivar supplied
as
Tonda
Romana
has
also
performed well, but tree, fruit and
kernel characteristics suggest this is
All the cultivars discussed above
yielded higher than Wanliss Pride,
which had been the most widely
grown cultivar in Australia until the
early 1990’s. At that time, this
cultivar was viewed as the industry
standard or benchmark cultivar in
Australia.
Figure 5. Levels of manganese in leaf samples collected annually from all sites
Manganese ppm
2000
O ra n g e
M o s s Va le
M yrtle fo rd
T o o la n g i
K e tte rin g
1500
1000
500
0
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Y e ars
Conclusions
Hazelnuts are a crop that is sensitive to
heat and moisture stress and are
therefore not considered to be well
adapted to the Australian environment
generally. They require well-drained soils
that are moderately fertile. Considering
http://www.afbmnetwork.orange.usyd.edu.au/afbmjournal/
these constraints, there are locations
within Australia that are proving to be
suitable for hazelnut growth and the
establishment of an industry. Key areas
with potential are the upper river valleys
in north-eastern Victoria and Gippsland,
the south coast and Central Tablelands
of NSW and parts of Tasmania.
© AFBMNetwork-CST04-01-01
91
AFBM Journal, 2004 –1(1):84-92, B Baldwin
Figure 6. Development of nut yield with time for five key varieties. Tonda di Giffoni is an Italian
cultivar that produces high quality kernels. TBC is an Australian selection, which also produces high
quality kernels. Barcelona is the main cultivar grown in Oregon. Ennis is an in-shell cultivar capable
of high yields in Oregon. Wanliss Pride is an old Australian selection.
Nut yield (kg/tree)
Orange
4
Barcelona
Ennis
3
TBC
2
Tonda di
Giffoni
1
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
Wanliss
Pride
Years
Nut yield (kg/tree)
Moss Vale
4
Barcelona
Ennis
3
TBC
2
1
Tonda di
Giffoni
0
2001
2002
2003
Wanliss
Pride
Years
Nut yield (kg/tree)
Myrtleford
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Barcelona
Ennis
TBC
Tonda di
Giffoni
Wanliss
Pride
2001
2002
2003
Years
http://www.afbmnetwork.orange.usyd.edu.au/afbmjournal/
© AFBMNetwork-CST04-01-01
92
AFBM Journal, 2004 –1(1):84-92, B Baldwin
Yields equivalent to 3t/ha have been
achieved from young trees for some
cultivars (Baldwin et al, 2003). These
compare very favourably with yields
reported for some of the highest yielding
hazelnut producing regions of the world,
Campania, Italy 2-2.8t/ha, Agen , France
2-2.5 t/ha and Camp de Tarragona,
Spain 1.5 - 3t/ha. (Tous Marti 2001).
Factors favouring the development of the
Australian industry are that technology is
available overseas for the complete
mechanization of the crop, and a
grower's organisation exists to foster
industry development (i.e. The Hazelnut
Growers of Australia Ltd.).
Research is well advanced on cultivar
assessment. It is considered that
sufficient knowledge is available within
Australia and overseas to enable growers
and investors to establish a viable
industry, but growers will need to take
care in site selection and work
collaboratively to develop a highly
productive, efficient industry with good
marketing strategies.
growth and yield of hazelnut trees, Proceedings
of 3rd International Congress on Hazelnut, Acta
Horticulturae, no. 351, pp. 305-314.
Olsen J 1995. Hazelnut research and fertility
research
and
management
in
Oregon,
Australian Nutgrower, 9(3):3-6.
Sale PWG, Couper DI, Cachia, PL and Larkin PJ
1993, ‘Tolerance to manganese toxicity among
cultivars of lucerne (Medicago sativa L.)’,
Developments in Plant & Soil Sciences, 50:4552.
Taylor GH 1991, Local Climatica Data, Corvallis,
Oregon State University, Oregon.
Tous Marti J 2001, Hazelnut technology for warm
climates,
Proceedings
Ninth
Australasian
Conference on Trees and Nut Crops, Perth,
Western Australia, April 13-20, 2001
Trimmer WA 1965, ‘Filbert nut growing’, The
Agricultural Gazette, NSW, p 295.
References
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 2002,
International Traded Statistics on Imports of
Hazelnuts, Australian Bureau of Statistics,
Canberra.
Baldwin, B. 1998. Hazelnuts, in the new rural
industries, in K Hyde (ed), A Handbook for
Farmers and Investors, Rural Industries
Research
and
Development
Corporation,
Canberra, pp 428-435.
Baldwin B, Gilchrist K and Snare L 2003, Hazelnut
variety assessment for South-eastern Australia,
Rural Industries Research and Development
Corporation, Publication No 03/141, Canberra.
Castillo FE and Beltran LR 1977, Agrimatologia de
Espana, Ministerio de Agricultura, Instituto
Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias, Madrid.
Germain E 1994, ‘The reproduction of hazelnut
(Corylus avellana L.): a review’, Proceedings of
3rd International Congress on Hazelnut, Acta
Horticulturae, no. 351, pp. 195-209.
Mehlenbacher SA 1991, ‘Chilling requirements of
hazelnut cultivars’, Scientia Horticulturae,
47:271-282.
Mingeau M, Ameglio T, Pons B and Rousseau P
1994, Effects of water stress on developemnt,
http://www.afbmnetwork.orange.usyd.edu.au/afbmjournal/
© AFBMNetwork-CST04-01-01