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UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
COMMUNICATION AND SOCIALISATION: INTERNS’ EXPERIENCES IN
THE ADVERTISING INDUSTRY
MIRIAM OHENE-OKANTAH
BA COMMUNICATION DESIGN
A
DISSERTATION
IN
THE
DEPARTMENT
OF
COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA STUDIES, FACULTY OF
LANGUAGES EDUCATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF
GRADUATE
STUDIES,
WINNEBA,
IN
REQUIREMENTS
UNIVERSITY
PARTIAL
FOR
OF
FULFILMENT
AWARD
OF
PHILOSOPHY DEGREE.
AUGUST, 2013
THE
EDUCATION,
OF
MASTER
THE
OF
DECLARATION
STUDENT’S DECLARATION
I, Miriam Ohene-Okantah declare that this dissertation, with the exception of
quotations and references contained in published works which have all been identified
and duly acknowledged, is entirely my own original work, and it has not been
submitted, either in part or whole, for another degree elsewhere.
SIGNATURE ……………………………….........................
DATE ………………………………....................................
SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION
I, hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this work was supervised in
accordance with the guidelines for supervision of Dissertation as laid down by the
University of Education, Winneba.
NAME OF SUPERVISOR ………………………………......
SIGNATURE ……………………………….........................
DATE ………………………………....................................
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To God be the glory, great things He has done. I am most grateful to God Almighty
for the strength and perseverance that He gave me during this research: "For in him
we live, and move, and have our being…” (Acts.17:28).
A study like this can never be the effort of one person but the contribution of different
friends and loved ones. My greatest gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. Andy OforiBirikorang, whose encouragement, direction and contributions have made this
research possible. To my dad, Rev. Michael Ohene-Okantah who carefully proofread
all my drafts, I say a big thank you. Your contributions to my work have paid off. My
gratitude goes to my husband whose support, advice and encouragement have brought
me this far. To special friends and loved ones like Paulina, Persis, Akosua,
Consolatrix, and Emilia I say a big thank you for your love and the insightful
contributions you made towards the success of my work.
My gratitude also goes to the supervisors in STB McCann, MultiPixel Ltd., Origin 8
and Ddp outdoor who opened their doors for me to conduct interviews with them and
their staff. I further wish to thank all my lecturers in the Department of
Communication and Media Studies, especially Miss Joyce Mensah and Mr. Kwesi
Aggrey who encouraged me, never to give up on the research no matter how stressful
it was. To CoMMSA 2012, I say thanks for your contributions and encouragement
which have helped to make my work a reality.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my mum and siblings, Mrs. Ohene-Okantah,
Michael and Eunice for their unconditional love and support, both financially and
emotionally throughout the programme.
iii
DEDICATION
To the two great men who have loved and supported me throughout this programme,
Mr. Jojoe Annan and Rev. Michael Ohene-Okantah.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE............................................................................................................................i
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................... iii
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................... v
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1
Background to the Study ............................................................................................ 1
1.1
1.1.1
Tertiary Education and Training ........................................................................ 1
1.2
Problem Statement ..................................................................................................... 3
1.3
Objectives .................................................................................................................. 5
1.4
Research Questions .................................................................................................... 6
1.5
Significance of Study ................................................................................................. 6
1.6
Summary .................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 8
LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 8
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 8
2.0
2.1
Advertising Industry in Ghana ........................................................................... 9
2.2
Communication and Socialisation for Interns and Organisations ....................10
2.3
Profile of Organisations ...........................................................................................11
2.4
A different way of learning: Concept of Internship .................................................16
2.5
Types of Internship ..................................................................................................19
2.5.1
Cooperative Education .....................................................................................19
2.5.2
Paid and Unpaid Internship ..............................................................................20
2.5.3
Independent and College-Sponsored Internship ..............................................22
2.6
Interns’ Experiences in Industry ..............................................................................22
2.7
Students’ Perception of Internship ...........................................................................24
2.8
Internship and Organisational Communication .......................................................25
2.9
Internship and Organisational Socialisation ............................................................29
2.10
Summary ..................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................33
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...........................................................................................33
3.0
Introduction ..............................................................................................................33
v
3.1
Background ..............................................................................................................33
3.2
Organisational Assimilation Theory ........................................................................33
3.3
Organisational assimilation process .........................................................................35
3.3.1
Anticipatory Socialisation ................................................................................35
3.3.2
Encounter Phase ...............................................................................................36
3.3.3
Metamorphosis .................................................................................................37
3.3.4
Disengagement/Exit .........................................................................................38
3.4
Organisational Assimilation and Humour................................................................39
3.5
Relevance of Theory to the Study ............................................................................42
3.6
Summary ..................................................................................................................43
CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................44
METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................44
4.0
Introduction ..............................................................................................................44
4.1
Research Design.......................................................................................................44
4.2
Population ................................................................................................................44
4.3
Sampling Technique and Sample .............................................................................45
4.4
Sample Size..............................................................................................................47
4.5
Data Collection Method ...........................................................................................48
4.6
Data Analysis ...........................................................................................................50
CHAPTER FIVE .....................................................................................................................53
FINDINGS AND ANALYSES ...............................................................................................53
Introduction ..............................................................................................................53
5.0
5.1
RQ1: What are the Perspectives of Student Interns in Organisations’ Socialisation
and Communication Process? ..............................................................................................54
5.1.1
Internship Pre-placements ................................................................................54
5.1.2
Interns as Extra-Duty staff ...............................................................................55
5.1.3
Intern-Supervisor Communication ...................................................................58
5.2
RQ2: How do Elements of Socialisation and Communication Impact on Interns’
Experiences? ........................................................................................................................63
5.2.1
Interns’ Socialisation Process ..........................................................................63
5.2.2
Adaptive flexibility ..........................................................................................67
5.2.3
Learning Experiences.......................................................................................71
5.2.3.2
Communication Skills .....................................................................................73
5.2.4
Time Management ...........................................................................................75
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5.3
RQ3: What are the Roles of Supervisors and Other Employees in Socialising
Interns?.................................................................................................................................80
5.3.1
Roles of supervisors in intern socialisation......................................................80
5.3.2
Roles of co-workers in intern socialisation ......................................................83
5.4 Criteria for Assessment: Internship Evaluation Form .................................................84
5.5
Other Findings and Observations.............................................................................87
5.5.1
Organisational Members’ Perception of Internship .........................................87
5.5.2
Organisational Culture and Interns’ Motivation ..............................................88
5.6
Measures that can be adopted to improve the productivity of internship ................90
5.6.1
Supervision ......................................................................................................90
5.6.2
Common Grounds ............................................................................................92
5.7
Summary ..................................................................................................................94
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................96
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION .........................................................96
6.0
Introduction ..............................................................................................................96
6.1
Summary ..................................................................................................................96
6.2
Conclusions ..............................................................................................................99
6.3
Recommendations ..................................................................................................100
6.4
Limitations .............................................................................................................104
6.5
Further Research ....................................................................................................104
6.6
Summary ................................................................................................................105
APPENDIX A: Interview Guide ............................................................................................120
APPENDIX B: Evaluation Forms .........................................................................................124
vii
List of Tables
Table1: Distribution of Respondents........................................................................47
Table 2: Interns’ Adaptive Flexibility.....................................................................68
viii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the study was to investigate the experiences of interns in relation to
communication and socialisation in advertising agencies in Ghana. Instruments used
for the study were documents from three institutions and in-depth interviews. Data
were gathered from seven (7) student interns who undertook either the independent or
college-sponsored forms of internship. Also four (4) supervisors and four (4) coworkers in the various advertising agencies and one (1) respondent from the National
Accreditation Board (NAB) were interviewed. Jablin’s Assimilation theory was used
to explain interns’ experiences and assimilation process. The theory posits that
individuals move from being newcomers to full membership within an organisation
through a four-stage process. Findings indicate that interns have different adaptive
abilities and may go through the assimilation process differently. However, the
amount of communication and the manner in which socialisation is done can bring
them onto an equal pedestal at the end of the internship programme. Additionally,
while interns tend to excel in the area of time management, they do not appear to
perform in the areas of communication skills, quality of work and taking initiatives. It
therefore can be concluded that effective communication and socialisation are the
underlying basis for students to fully live the purpose of internship.
ix
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background to the Study
Internship is described as a non-contractual work that offers tertiary students some
experience in the industry (Chartered Institute for Personal Development, 2009). The
purpose is to expose students to the professional world and give them a smooth transition
into the industry. A lot of universities and polytechnics in Ghana over the years have
introduced industrial attachment or internship programmes into the school curriculum
because of its benefits to students, educational institutions and organisations. However,
studies have shown that students’ state of readiness for post-graduation employment is
assumed after internship (Anane-Fenin, 2008; Bloch, 2011; Darkwa & Kyei, 2008;
Rothman & Sisman, 2010; Sapp & Zhang, 2009). According to Sapp & Zhang (2009),
despite the benefits of internships, interns do not seem to live up to the expectations of
their supervisors. While on internship, it is important for the students to make a link
between their experiences in the industry and what they are taught in school in order to
benefit from the exercise. Data from industry supervisors provide persuasive evidence
that some of the students do not make adequate connections between what they learn in
their coursework and their behaviour and performance in the workplace (Sapp & Zhang,
2009). These reports have come from the perspective of supervisors, what have the
student interns got to say?
1.1.1
Tertiary Education and Training
Education may be defined as the process of imparting and receiving knowledge and is
usually engaged in by a student and a teacher. Oghuvbu (2007) defines education as the
1
“systematic procedure for the transfer and transformation of culture, through formal or
informal training of people in a society” (p.19). The primary purpose of education
therefore, is to empower individuals and provide manpower for national development.
This goal can be achieved through collaboration between educational institutions where
formal education is provided and organisations where informal and practical training are
offered. Internship, as part of academic work, provides students with both theoretical and
practical education and this is usually undertaken by tertiary educational institutions
(Gyamfi, 2003; Rothman, 2007). Wen (2010) calls internship a “valuable component” of
tertiary educational training. Tertiary education in Ghana is offered by polytechnics,
professional institutions and universities which are made up of the public and private
sectors. According to the National Accreditation Board (NAB), as of now, there are nine
public universities and forty-two accredited private universities in Ghana. There are ten
polytechnics, each situated in the regional capitals which provide higher professional
education to students. Tertiary education in Ghana has seen much growth since the early
nineties. According to a report by the Ministry of Education, Science and Sports
(MoESS), universities and polytechnics had a total enrolment of about 10,000 in 1990
and 100,000 by 2008. This goes to buttress the fact that tertiary education has been
considered an important feature of Ghana’s development, hence, its patronage.
The ultimate goal of tertiary education is not to produce ‘an educated man’ as termed by
Oghuvbu (2007) but to produce a man relevant to the development of the existence of
humanity. Emphasis on internship programme as part of tertiary education would
therefore provide a workforce for the country’s development.
2
A lot of higher educational institutions in Ghana are involved in internship programme to
aid in the effective training of their students. Seeing the need for internship, some
students do it voluntarily at the end of every academic year. In Colleges of Education
internship is called the ‘IN-IN-OUT’ programme (Anane-Fenin, 2008). The purpose of
this programme is to integrate the teaching of theory with classroom experience and
performance and to combine teaching with studying. With this same rationale internship
programmes are designed to enable students to work as they study. Each of the
polytechnics in Ghana has designed the school curriculum to have all third year students
out on internship during the second semester vacation. This lasts for at least two months,
after which an assessment report is sent to the school. Some universities have established
an affiliation with organisations where students are posted (Anane-Fenin, 2008).
The National Accreditation Board has made inputs in internship programmes in the
various tertiary institutions to make it worthwhile (Nsoh, 2006). For instance in 1999, the
Board made recommendations to the University of Education Winneba for lecturers to
make follow-up visits on their students in industry. Consequently, it has been the practice
of the universities and other polytechnics over the years.
1.2
Problem Statement
It is important to consider that the development of the advertising industry partly depends
on the quality of students that are produced into the industry. However, the training of
students is not solely the responsibility of the various tertiary institutions but also
organisations through internship programmes. The subject of industrial attachment or
internship has been of immense importance to researchers because of its varying benefits
3
to different stakeholders. Assessment of internship when proven positive goes to
demonstrate that teachers and industry supervisors are successful in producing a
productive workforce. A significant component of internships is for students to reflect on
connections between the practical work done in the industry and the theoretical
knowledge acquired in school.
Internship experience is to benefit all, while the industry gets hands from the schools, the
interns learn, schools also end up producing well equipped labour for the industry. As
Munger (2006) puts it, internships can be “win-win-win situations”. By the use of
personal interviews and questionnaires, Darkwa & Kyei (2008) demonstrate that student
interns gain more experience and are adequately prepared for industry as compared to
non-interns and provide employment opportunities for them.
However, Bloch (2011) by analysing interns’ report concludes that interns are not
meeting industry requirements because there has been a continuing lack of relatedness
between what students learn in school and what happens in the industry. By the use of the
experiential learning theory Sapp & Zhang (2009) explored expectations of industry
insiders and identified how student interns were performing and concluded that
supervisors’ feedback on internships continue to follow a negative trend. They indicated
that student interns have not lived up to the expectation of their supervisors. They state
that students do not perform in areas like initiative, writing skills and oral communication
skills which are due to their lack of confidence. Initiative, writing skills and oral
communication stems from communication and socialisation. From these works it may be
concluded that communication and socialisation are key components to effective
internship programmes.
4
Each of these works assessed student interns’ performance from the perspective of their
supervisors, however, students may have their own expectations which may or may not
be met. During the period of internship, the students go through a number of experiences
that urge them on to work harder or discourage them from putting in their best. Ndago
(1997) identify that agents that produce satisfaction for interns include supervision, interpersonal relationships and working conditions. These agents, which he termed as
“satisfiers” can be met through effective communication and socialisation.
This paper seeks to investigate how elements of communication and socialisation impact
on interns’ learning experiences in the advertising industry. As stated by Ndago (1997)
when the interns express how they are affected by the organisations’ motivators,
supervisors’ in the organisation may provide a more conducive environment for their
interns.
1.3
Objectives
The primary objective of the study is to investigate experiences of student interns in the
advertising industry. Under this general objective the study seeks to:
1. Investigate the perspectives of student interns in organisations’ socialisation and
communication process.
2. Explore how elements of socialisation and communication impact on interns’
experiences.
3. Examine the role of supervisors and employees in interns’ socialisation.
4. Identify measures that can be adopted to improve the inclusivity and productivity
of interns in the advertising industry.
5
1.4
Research Questions
Q1:
What are the perspectives of student interns in organisations’ socialisation and
communication process?
Q2:
How do elements of socialisation and communication impact on interns’
experiences?
Q3:
What are the roles of supervisors and other employees in socialising interns?
1.5
Significance of Study
The purpose of this study is to identify the experiences of student interns in selected
advertising companies in Ghana. The findings of this study will harness the need to
evolve the university curriculum to cover supervisors’ feedback and interns’ experiences.
Also, faculty members would be guided in fashioning out curriculum consistent with
industry requirements.
The research would also highlight the need to pay particular attention to the needs of
student interns reinforcing the importance for supervisors to go through a formal
socialisation process as part of orientation. It would serve as a notice to in-house
supervisors to take into consideration the needs and experiences of interns when giving
reports to their various colleges and universities.
Also, findings of this study will serve as a reference material for policy makers in
changing the face of internship or industrial attachment in order to benefit the schools,
interns, organisations and Ghana as a whole. The policy of internship in Ghana needs a
control mechanism. This is to ensure that there is consistency in solving problems and
6
challenges that may arise and to guarantee readiness of a smooth operation of the policy.
One of such control mechanisms is to scientifically research into the issues on the ground
to afford policy makers relevant information to work with. Findings of this work,
together with suggestions and recommendations could be integrated in policy formulation
regarding internship programme in Ghana. Finally, the study would add to the body of
knowledge and serve as a reference material for future researchers.
1.6
Summary
Chapter one began with the definition of internship which is a non-contractual work that
offers a young person some experience in the workplace (Chartered Institute for Personal
Development, 2009). Based on this definition, the benefits of exposing students to the
professional world and giving them a smooth transition into the industry have been
identified. The section looks at the history of the advertising in Ghana and the importance
of internship as part of formal education it also explores the impact of organisational
communication of socialisation student interns.
The statement of the problem showed that although a number of benefits of internship
have been outlined by researchers, there are some challenges being faced by the student
interns. However, what this paper sought to investigate was how communication and
socialisation affects interns in the advertising industry. The chapter further outlines the
objectives and research questions the paper sought to answer. They were aimed at
exploring the impact of communication and socialisation on interns’ experiences and
identifying challenges in socialisation and assimilation.
7
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0
Introduction
There is extensive literature on internship especially in the field of medicine (Grey,
Pearson, Rolfe, Kay & Powis, 2001; Holzberg, 1961), Business (Feldman, Folks, &
Turnley, 1998; Kennedy & Lawton, 1990) and education (Gyamfi, 2003; Nsoh, 2006;
Provencal, 2005; Ralph, 2002). These works explored the importance of internships to
the industry and student interns. Though research indicates that students do not always
match up to the expectation of their supervisors (Darkwa & Kyei, 2008; Sapp & Zhang,
2009), internship has provided experiences beneficial to the success story of
organisations, educational institutions and students. The current study deals with
internship as it occurs within the field of communication and media, specifically in the
advertising industry.
For the purpose of the study the literature review is divided into six themes namely:

Advertising industry in Ghana

Communication and socialisation for interns and organisations

Profile of organisation

A different way of learning: Concept of internship

Types of internship

Interns’ experiences

Students’ perception of internship

Internship and organisational communication

Internship and organisational socialisation
8
2.1
Advertising Industry in Ghana
The advertising industry is one of the fast growing industries in Ghana considering the
quest for the growth of businesses. Both big and small organizations depend on the
advertising agencies to get their messages across to the rest of the world. The industry has
over the years seen much growth and developments from the period where there were no
advertising agencies in Ghana till now (Amoah, 2010). Informal advertising began as
market women used bells, shouts and other means to sell their products. In 1927
however, the first advertising agency known as the West African Publicity Limited
(WAP) was formed. Other advertising firms that were later established used the press and
some cinema houses as the main media for communication. Many of the firms that were
set up were managed and operated by foreigners; however, from 1958, Ghanaians began
to man some of the agencies. According to the history of the advertising industry in
Ghana, a platform was created for Ghanaians to acquire skills and knowledge to fully
manage the companies. Later, the Advertising Association of Ghana (AAG) was set up as
a unified body and professional institute for the advertising and marketing
communications organizations in Ghana. The body seeks to advise, analyse and improve
the work of member companies. It also educates its members and informs them about
code of ethics. AAG serves as an inspiration for innovation to member groups. It also
promotes and sets standards for operations in the industry and reward marketing
communications that succeed. Currently, the association has about 89 registered foreign
and local agencies.
9
2.2
Communication and Socialisation for Interns and Organisations
Organisational communication occurs in corporations and networks and includes all
aspects of interpersonal and group communication (Mehta, 2009). Gibson and Hodgetts
(1991) define organisational communication as the transmission of information and
knowledge among organisational members for the purpose of achieving efficiency and
effectiveness. There are two approaches to defining organisational communication: the
container approach and social constructionist approach (Baker, 2002). The container
approach stipulates that organisations exist separately from its communication and serve
as an instrument that affects communication. The latter, which is the social
constructionist approach, assumes that communication forms the basis of every
organisation. This approach establishes that an organisation exists because of
communication. Baker (2002) suggests that in this approach, what will work for one
organisation will work for another similar organisation.
In the social constructionist approach, organisational communication can be defined as
the “way language is used to create different kinds of social structures, such as
relationships, teams, and networks” (Eisenberg, Goodall & Trethewey, 2007). This
approach supports the use of effective communication in socialising new employees, and
interns for the purpose of this study. Communication is used as a tool to create
relationships, both formal and informal for efficiency and effectiveness. In creating
relationships, socialisation is key.
Organisational socialisation is a “term used to describe a process in which an individual
acquires the attitudes, behaviours and knowledge needed to successfully participate as an
10
organisational member” (Wesson & Gogus, 2005, p. 1018). This process is also known as
"Onboarding” (Cashman & Smye, 2007). It aids in getting an individual integrated into
an organisation by adapting to the organisation’s culture and strategies in achieving a
common goal.
The period of organisational entry is crucial for both organisations and newcomers.
Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg (2003) state that the kind of knowledge acquired during
the early stages of a new employees’ stay in an organisation determines their
understanding of the organisational goals and mission. During this period, interns, like
new employees determine whether or not they “fit in” the organisation or not. Distortions
in communication during the socialisation process ought to be identified and reduced or
eliminated if possible.
2.3
Profile of Organisations
2.3.1
STB McCann (Universal McCann, Ghana)
Universal McCann is an Advertising Agency that offers media planning and buying that
delivers compelling, strategic, and progressive advertising solutions to brands
nationwide. The company operated as the Media Department of STB McCann from
January, 1994 – May, 2006. STB McCann started operation as Universal McCann in
June, 2006. The company is now part of a marketing communications group which
includes STB McCann (Creative). Universal McCann specializes in providing strategic
media planning, buying, evaluation, and coordination services to our cherished clients
and those of our sister agencies. It has also been successful in winning and providing
media planning and buying services to giant multinational companies.
11
Their client-centric and energetic devotion to customer service is evident within the 360°
approach that was taken to the following media segments: Traditional – TV, Radio, Print
and Outdoor, New Media – Web, Mobile.
In Africa, Universal McCann is networked in 25 countries plus 15 media correspondent
offices. In the entire world, the company is spread through 132 countries with 186 offices
and over 3,500 media professionals but 1 Manifesto. The company aims at helping
businesses connect with consumers in a compelling way. Leading Clients include Nestle,
Bank of Africa, BonVi, Standchart and Broll. Other loyal clients are Ghana Stock
Exchange, BonVi, Ghacem, Peugeot, Woodin, Standard Chartered, Accra Mall, USA
Poultry and Egg Council.
Notable Achievements:

Among the Top 5 Media Agency in Ghana

Most
competitive Media Agency for Nestle in Central West Africa Region
(2012)

SEDEX – Compliant Agency
PR Activities include:

Put together thought leadership strategy

Assist in internal communication

Nurture, Manage and Sustain Relationship with the Media

Spot and address reputational risk issues

Assist in the production of in-house Magazine

Organization/Support of events, fairs etc
12

Stakeholder relationship Management
There is no standard approach that is used by Universal McCann to win new business.
Each win is unique because each client’s needs are different. Staff of the company are
skilled at bringing clients ‘outcomes’ that are relevant to their bands.
Team

They believe that media planning and buying is the prerogative of professionals,
who have the requisite knowledge and understanding of the client’s business.

Their team has adequate insight into consumer behaviour as well as the overall
media scene in Ghana.

This is based on an extensive knowledge of media research, planning & buying
that span over 10 years, and have built up a wealth of expertise across a number
of media platforms; having worked on multinational
categories.
The company promises genuine partnership that is:

Professional

Proactive

Personal

Passionate

Transparent
13
brands across various
2.3.2
Origin8 Ghana
Origin8 Ghana is a full-service agency established in 1997. The organisation is a member
of the Chartered Institute of Marketing and the Advertising Association of Ghana. The
mission of the organisation is to deliver total integrated marketing communications
solutions inspired by ground-breaking creative ideas to achieve excellent business results.
The Company is characterised by confidence, courage, team playing, inspiration, passion,
dreamers, and positively provocative. Their drive is to be the most creative, resultsachieving
integrated
marketing
communications
company
in
Ghana
that
is
internationally-recognized by way of targets achieved and prestigious awards won. They
believe they succeed when their clients succeed. Work with clients is guided by the ethos
of ‘One team One Dream’. The attitude of the company is that ‘Nothing is Impossible’.
Their philosophy is being passionate about ideas, passionate about clients, and passionate
about results.
What they Offer

Brand & Marketing Consulting

Conceptualization & Advert Development

Strategic Planning

PR Services

Event Organization & Management

Market Research

Advertising & Sales Promotions

Print & Broadcast Productions

Media Consulting & Buying
14

2.3.3
Web Development & Digital Solutions
Multipixel Limited
Multipixel Limited which was established in January, 2011 is a multimedia firm that is
specialised in advertising, publishing and photography. Multipixel Ltd. is a graphic art
company that ensures digital representation of an image in a wide range of mediaadvertising, publishing and photography. The vision of the company is to be the leading
multimedia company in the world. Their mission is to meet the needs of unsatisfied
clients, to serve as the first point of contact for all individuals and corporate institutions
who desire international standards in the media world.
The company believes in hiring competent and experienced workforce. The staff
members are professionals who are highly trained from the various universities and
polytechnics. There are further training programmes ran to keep the workforce in the
growing market demands and to find better ways of satisfying their clients.
Significant to their workforce strength is the taking on of internship students every
vacation and sometimes in the course of the semester.
Interns are taken on for
commercial training for school assessment. The company takes on about ten students per
year. The best students are identified and recruited after their study in school.
2.3.4
DDP Outdoor
Design and Display Publicity (DDP) Outdoor Ltd. is an outdoor advertising organisation
in Ghana which was established as a Limited Liability Company in 1973 with emphasis
on Billboard production and installation, Production of Point of Sale materials,
Exhibition Building/Display, Wide Format Digital printing etc. The organisation is a
15
member of the Advertising Association of Ghana and The Great Argon Group of
Companies, a marketing communications group in Ghana. The company has expertise in
the following:

Creative Advertising

Media Planning and Buying

Public Relations and Events Management

Direct Marketing

Strategic Planning

Multi-Media Marketing

Media Monitoring

Outdoor Advertising
By virtue of being a subsidiary of The Great Argon Holdings Group, DDP Outdoor Ltd
has affiliated offices across these countries: Togo, Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali, Liberia,
Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Cote d'Ivoire, Senegal, Chad, Niger, Kenya,
Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa. The vision of the company is to
become the most sought after outdoor advertising company in West and Central Africa.
Aligning itself with its vision, the organisation’s strategic objective is to provide
innovative, creative and result-oriented outdoor advertising solutions that enhance brand
visibility with the view of maximizing value to the client.
2.4
A different way of learning: Concept of Internship
One of the means of providing professional practical education is through internship
programmes where there is the occasion for students to apply theoretical information
16
acquired through formal classroom education in a structured environment which cannot
be replaced by the usual classroom setting (Bloch, 2011). Early in the 19th century,
Voluntary apprenticeship for the youth had begun in Europe and has since become an
integral part of training schemes. The history of institutional internship dates as far back
as the 1900s and was originated in the University of Cincinnati, United States of America
(Driscoll, 2006; Merrit, 2008). It developed together with the concepts of experiential
learning and education, school-to-school and school-to-work programmes, initiatives, and
service-learning programmes. Internship programmes were introduced to high school
students to begin the organisational socialisation process. From the University of
Cincinnati, internship spread across the globe and became an accepted form of education
(Merrit, 2008).
Internship can be defined as the relationship between training and practice with its
fundamental components being the acquisition and application of knowledge and skill
within an environment where the knowledge acquired will be relevant (Provencal, 2005).
In this sense, Provencal agrees with Wasserman (2008) who defines internship as an
experiential learning process for students outside the school setting with the purpose of
guiding them into their chosen fields. From the two definitions two major factors can be
identified as the basis of internship: theory and practice. It can be established that
internship which is an on-the-job training serves as a complement to classroom learning.
The purpose of internship, according to Merrit (2008) is to aid in enhancement of
academic work and career exploration.
The benefits of internships have been widely documented (Degravel, Hertz &
Koutoumanis, 2012; McManus & Feinstein, 2008; Provencal, 2005) but from largely
17
different perspectives. Internship programmes over the years have benefited many
organisations and prepared students for the industry. Internship is a way of bridging the
gap between school and work to give students the needed experience for effective output
in the world of work. Internships are used as a means of career development experience
(Feldman, Folks & Turnle, 1998). They further argue that when internship programmes
are planned and carried out effectively they can produce various benefits for both interns
and their employers.
McManus and Feinstein (2008) maintain that internships provide rich environments
where students can learn about their future careers by way of occupational socialisation.
They further note that by way of follow-ups, interns can maximize the outcomes of their
experiences and get them prepared for their future career. Students have an enabling
environment to learn about their future careers.
For interns to derive maximum benefits from their experience, it is important that
mechanisms for proper supervision and coordination be put in place. It is for this reason
that The Employers’ Internship Toolkit (2005) has provided ways by which employers
can make internship experience a meaningful one:

Plan and Prepare

Orient & Train both intern and supervisor

Provide a Supervisor who will always be available to assist interns

Include & Enrich by providing other experiences outside his/her normal duties.

Challenge & utilize interns’ skills and abilities in a way that challenges the intern
and benefits the sponsoring organisation.
18

Provide a Mentor who can assist the interns

Provide ongoing feedback to and from the school about the interns’ progress

Follow-up on intern for any other concerns.

Support the interns by providing a reference letter at the end of the programme
and provide guidance for career choice.

Have Fun
In spite of this, Gyamfi (2003) points out that in Ghana, proper measures and guidelines
have not been put in place to ensure that internship programmes serve the intended
purpose. He indicates that it appears there is a lack of proper supervision and
coordination of the implementation of internship programme.
2.5
Types of Internship
According to the Employers’ Internship Toolkit (2005), internship may be done on parttime or full-time during different durations. A typical internship is an extension of
academic work, where students are assessed as part of academic scores. The general
types of internship are cooperative education, paid and unpaid, and Independent and
College Sponsored internships.
2.5.1
Cooperative Education
Cooperative education is the type of internship programme where students enrol as fulltime employees in organisations for a set period of time (Gault, Leach & Duey, 2010).
This type also known as “Co-op” is described as the kind of experience acquired in the
industry sometimes as part of academic work. Students learn from industry while
19
applying knowledge and skills acquired from academic setting. In UK, Co-op is used to
describe “business field experience opportunities or placements” (Gault, Leach & Duey,
2010, p.77). Generally, a form of remuneration is required for this type of internship.
This is because students enrol as full-time employees in their respective areas of
specialisation. Co-op, according to Gault et al. (2010) requires in-house supervision.
Students at the period of entry will have little practical experience to enable them apply
theoretical knowledge; however, with the assistance from an in-house supervisor, they
will be assimilated. In this type of internship, there is less academic credit given to
student interns.
Similarly, Bukaliya (2012) describes Co-op internship as experience-based education. He
states that co-op programmes are more often than not run for engineering students or
manufacturing-oriented courses. If an institution requires an internship for students, co-op
programme is usually preferred because it is mostly for students in specific majors. The
programme is generally run for a period of six months, one or two semesters depending
on the institution or the programme of study.
2.5.2
Paid and Unpaid Internship
Whether an internship is paid or not depends largely on the employer and not the intern
(Employers’ Toolkit, 2005). When looking for internship programmes, students need to
consider the difference between the paid and unpaid. Some institutions have it as a policy
to have their students paid during internship but this does not seem to correlate with some
organisational policies. Paid internship offer students the opportunity to learn while they
make profit. According to Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (2010)
20
remuneration for interns is a form of motivation for interns to give their best and to learn
more. It goes a long way to become an advantage for the organisation by adequately
training future employees.
Sometimes “the market” determines whether internship will be paid or unpaid. For
instance, accounting and engineering student interns are more likely to be paid because it
is believed that students provide tangible benefits to employers (Bukaliya, 2012). On the
other hand, students specialised in Social Science and Advertising are mostly not paid.
Also, government based organisations usually undertake the unpaid form of internship.
Before an organisation or institution can undertake the unpaid form of internship the
following factors spelt out in the Employers’ Internship Toolkit (2005) should be
considered:

The work of the intern is an integral part of the student’s course of study.

The student will receive credit for the work, or the work is a requirement of
graduation.

The student must prepare a report of his/her experience and submit it to a faculty
supervisor.

The employer receives a letter or some other form of documentation from the
school indicating that it approves of the internship and it is educationally relevant.

Learning objectives are clearly defined.
Also, some factors have been spelt out by the U.S. Department of Labour Wage and Hour
Division (2010) to ensure that organisations do not use students as a form of cheap
labour. It is stated that for an organisation to undertake the unpaid form of internship it
21
must clearly provide an educational atmosphere for the intern. The element of education
is to be the underlying factor in considering this type of internship.
2.5.3
Independent and College-Sponsored Internship
Students may engage in internship through a formal setup from the university or do it on
voluntary basis (Bukayila, 2012). When done on voluntary basis, students seek for
placements into companies without the direct knowledge of the institution (Scott &
Sibley, n.d). Participation of independent internship is voluntary; refusal will involve no
penalty or loss of academic credit (Scott & Sibley, n.d). Interns may discontinue the
exercise at anytime without facing any form or punishment from either the organisation
or the school. According to the Employers’ Internship Toolkit (2005), monitoring and
evaluation cannot be guaranteed.
On the contrary, there is close monitoring and assessment with the college-sponsored
internship (Employers’ Internship Toolkit, 2005). Some universities have established a
relationship with organisations where students are posted for internship at certain times of
the academic year. Bukayila (2012) calls this type of arrangement College-sponsored
internship. The student has no responsibility in searching for placements in organisations.
The advantage of this type of internship over the independent internship is that
productivity can be measured which motivates students to put in their best. Each of the
types of internships discussed above could over-lap the other.
2.6
Interns’ Experiences in Industry
Internship programme is a “three-way partnership” between student interns, organisations
and educational institutions (Tovey, 2001). Universities and Polytechnics have the
22
responsibility of preparing students for industry work by taking them through course
work, tutorship and counselling. The organisation equally has the responsibility of
providing for interns’ pre-entry orientation, socialisation and evaluation of students’
performance at the end of the internship programme. Tovey (2001) however, stresses that
the partnership should be completed by students by agreeing to the various learning
processes and giving their best. Hence, the experiences of interns will depend not only on
the organisation but also on the educational institution and the intern as they maximise
opportunities to produce a workforce for the development of the country. Kelly, Noonan
and Moonagle (2011) noted in their work that students’ preparedness for internship
depends largely on course work taken and pre-entry orientation. This goes to establish
that teachers or lecturers have a responsibility of first of all preparing students for
internship.
Internships provide an opportunity for students to come face to face with different
methods of executing a project (Provencal, 2005). Not many institutions have equipment
needed to execute a job, however internship programmes provide the means for interns to
try their hands on what may not be accessible in schools. Provencal (2005) further states
that students meet different people in the industry and have to team up and work with
them. This enables students to mature and adapt to organisational culture. Despite the
learning experiences acquired during internships, a number of interns do not get mentors
and supervisors to work with them. This can be attributed to the lack of facilities and
planning. Also, supervisors do not go through any form of training, hence are unable to
adequately train student interns (Provencal, 2005).
23
Using personal observation, questionnaire and personal interviews, Darkwa & Kyei
(2008) proved that students faced some challenges while on internship. They state that
most students were unprepared for the internship and spent more than a month to get
assimilated into the various companies. According to Darkwa & Kyei (2008) students are
mostly anxious about meeting more experienced and confident employees.
2.7
Students’ Perception of Internship
Findings of Gyamfi’s (2003) work show that when supervision and control are poorly
conducted, interns do not show seriousness in their work. He further states that this
attitude of interns has an influence on the performance of both the interns and the
organisation. Supervisors reported that some students are not interested in the learning
aspect of internship but consider it as an activity away from academic work. The
perception of students has been that internship is a way for organisations to receive cheap
labour from students and should not be tagged as way of learning. Furthermore, they
believe that when the paid type of internship is undertaken, students will earn some
money to meet their academic needs.
The aim of the internship programme is to “provide students with a valuable learning
experience in a professional and supported environment” (Cord, Bowery & Clements,
2011, p.164). Among the experiences interns go through in industry is ‘learning
experiences’ which is the ultimate purpose of internship. In a study conducted by
Renganathan, Bin & Li (2012) on students' perception of internship programme, findings
showed that learning experience is important because when students understand
organisational culture they work to achieve organisational goals. They further argue that
24
there will be the increased demand for competent students who have acquired industrial
knowledge and not only academically brilliant students.
2.8
Internship and Organisational Communication
Communication is an essential tool in the effective functioning of organisations because
it enables organisational members to share ideas and information for its smooth running.
The basic function of organisational communication is to affect receiver knowledge or
behaviour by informing, directing, regulating, persuading and socialising (Baker, 2002).
This brings to bare the importance of communication in organisational socialisation.
According to Baker (2002), forms of organisational communication include: (1) levels;
(2) formal versus informal; (3) direction (vertical, horizontal, diagonal); and (4) internal
versus external focus. Each of these distinctions of communication affects organisational
socialisation processes. Levels of communication include interpersonal communication,
group level communication, Organizational
communication, inter-organizational
communication and Mass communication. Interpersonal communication has been
considered a key level of communication in recent times (Baker, 2002).
In Nordin, Halib & Ghazali (2011) comprehensive literature review, it was revealed that
effective internal communication leads to effective work output in the organisation.
Internal communication is the exchange of information and ideas among people within
the confines of an organization (Mazzei, 2010). Internal communications include the
upward, downward, horizontal, diagonal forms of communication through formal
meetings and informal chats through the grapevine. In times past, the bureaucratic system
of organisations did not give room for informal communication which is usually
associated with interpersonal, horizontal communication (Nordin et al, 2011). The
25
formal, top-down communication, known as the downward communication was seen to
be the ideal for organisational communication considering the formal structures in place.
Furthermore, Nordin et al. (2011) state that recently, informal communication has been
proven to be a more effective system of communication. Formal structures in the
organisation do not usually give room for verbal communication. Similar to their
findings, Mazzei (2010) indicates that sound communication which is also known as
verbal communication thrives on informal interpersonal communication. He further notes
that informal interpersonal communication is one of the key factors in achieving
organisational goals. Hence, organisational communication goes far beyond training
employees with effective communication skills to also address the communication needs
and challenges faced by organizations. According to Baker (2002) a combination of the
informal and formal communication will ensure an effective conduct of organisational
members and hence, affect productivity.
Downward communication to be effective, organisational leaders must learn to
communicate directly rather than communicate through different channels (Larkin &
Larkin, 1994 as cited in Nordin et al., 2011). It is believed that information given from
the supervisor or manager is perceived to be more accurate than colleagues.
Upward communication can be defined as the exchange of information from employees
to the top management (Mazzei, 2010). It is considered as a vital communication tool in
every organisation. However, Nordin et al. (2011) argue that there is low turnover in
upward communication than downward communication. This brings the assumption that
much of the communication that occurs between interns and their supervisors is the
downward communication.
26
Sapp and Zhang (2009) noted in an empirical study to identify trends in industry
supervisors’ feedback on business communication internships that performance areas
such as initiative, writing skills, and oral communication skills need much attention.
Findings of their work indicate that students bring eagerness and strong informal social
skills to industry but less confidence and application of theoretical knowledge and skill
learnt in school. They also state that courses such as interpersonal, organisational, and
group
communication
theories
and
applications
are
important
for
intern
professionalisation. In the view of Sapp and Zhang (2009), industry expectations should
not necessarily shape or determine curricular content. On the contrary, Oghuvbu (2007)
introduces formal and informal ways of imparting knowledge to students. This makes
internship an extension of course work.
Much attention should be given to the communication development of students (Sapp &
Zhang, 2009). Findings of their study suggest that industry insiders believe that during
internships students do not perform in areas like initiative, writing skills and oral
communication skills. Kim, Kim & Bzullak, (2012) note that schools must provide a
form of education that helps students develop their interpersonal skills. Kim et al. (2012)
further state that this goes a long way to help them to understand dependability and
initiative. These attributes when adequately acquired make students marketable in the real
world of business. Despite the fact that interns work in the industry environment, Kim et
al. (2012) suggest that there is the need for students to receive advice and direction hence,
the need for mentorship and supervision as an important aspect of internship programme.
In concluding, they suggest that organisational leaders should mentor interns to socialise
27
and network in the organisation in order for interns to learn other informal but valuable
career skills.
Non-verbal communication is the use of the body, the mannerisms and the behaviours to
communicate (Jensen, 2003). Teven and McCroskey (1996) (as cited in King & Chan,
2011) indicate that it is important for teachers to consider how non-verbal communication
is done with students. Non-verbal communication includes facial expressions, gaze,
posture, and other body movements conveyed a teachers' attitude, feelings, and emotional
state. They indicate that with a positive and realistic attitude toward internship, students
tend to have a satisfactory internship, and hence have a productive internship experience.
Career skills such as initiative skills, communication skills, interpersonal skills and job
acquisition skills were identified as areas where much attention is needed.
In determining the experiences of technical communication interns as they relate to the
progress toward professionalisation, Bloch (2011) did an exploratory thematic analysis of
graduate
student
professionalization
interns’ detailed
issues:
reports. This
educational
background,
paper was
based on
identifiability
of
five
technical
communicators, status, demonstrating value added, and professional consciousness. He
identified that the educational background of the interns when consistent with job
specification aids in relating theory learnt in school to practical job done in the industry.
However, students did not seem to link theory learnt in school to what was done in the
industry. This was attributed to the fact that relevant courses are usually taken after
internship. Also, company heads found it difficult to identify students’ area of
specialisation when posting them to their respective departments and units. Students
28
experienced the lack of cooperation from other employees and clients because of their
status as interns. Bloch’s (2011) study which was conducted in Miami University in
Oxford is consistent with the findings of Darkwa & Kyei’s (2008) study, sampled from
Ashesi University College and KNUST, both in Ghana. This establishes the fact that
there has been a continuous drawback in the issue of organisational socialisation for
interns.
2.9
Internship and Organisational Socialisation
Organisational socialisation can be defined as “the process by which an individual
acquires the social knowledge and skills necessary to assume an organisational role”
(Maanen & Schein, 1979, p.211). Similarly, Wesson & Gogus (2005) define
organisational socialisation as “a process in which an individual acquires the attitudes,
behaviours and knowledge needed to successfully participate as an organisational
member” (p.1018). Cashman (2007) terms organisational socialisation as "On-boarding”
and defines it as the “process of learning, networking, resource allocating, goal-setting
and strategizing that ends with new hires quickly reaching maximum productivity" ( p.
5). A common term that runs through these definitions is “process” which brings the
assumption that organisational socialisation is a never-ending continuum that is needed
for both new employees and existing ones.
Gaitens (2000) identifies challenges facing organisations with respect to the socialisation
of new employees. Socialising new employees as stated by Gaitens is a complex process;
it becomes more complex when new employees are interns. He states that supervisors are
frustrated not only because the interns’ lack the skill to work efficiently but also their
inability to ask questions. The ability of an individual to ask questions can be attributed to
29
effective communication skills. This suggests that the issue of socialisation to a great
extent is due to the lack of effective communication. The perceived reason for the setback
in communication and socialisation according to Gaitens is that interns worry about
asking too many questions.
Consistent with Gaitens’ findings, Tovey (2001) identifies that challenges being faced by
industry in socialising student interns includes communication. This persists because
organisations are not prepared to spend time and resources on recruiting interns who may
not end up working with their organisations (Nsoh, 2006).
However, other researchers suggest that developing student interns in organisational
socialisation may not necessarily involve expenditure since adjustment arises primarily
through interpersonal communications between newcomers and established members of
the organisation, like leaders and co-workers (Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003).
Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg (2003) outline some factors that influence experiential
learning and they are comprised of pre-entry knowledge of the job, pragmatic attitudes to
adjust and socialisation influences from the organisation, supervisors, and co-workers.
Findings of their work suggest that before students accept internship opportunities, they
must have a prior knowledge about the organisation, its goals, culture and all other vital
information. This is to determine whether one will fit into the organisation or not.
Through supervision and mentorship, interns can be taught to be proactive in learning and
decision making. Supervisors and mentors should be trained to know effective
communication that affects the socialisation of new employees. The socialisation process
is not left for supervisors and mentors alone but also co-workers since they are the first
30
point of call for interns. Co-workers’ influence over intern socialisation complements for
organisational commitment which marks the beginning of productivity.
Findings of The Corporate Leadership Council's research bring the assumption that new
employees establish within the first 30 days whether they fit in an organisation or not
(Friedman, 2006). Snell (2006) suggests that an effective orientation and socialisation has
the under-listed benefits:

Reduced time to contribution/competence.

Improved employee productivity and performance.

Stronger bonds among colleagues.

Enhanced job satisfaction and loyalty.

Improved employee engagement and retention.

Enhanced employer brand.
Considering the benefits of effective socialisation especially for interns, McManus and
Feinstein (2008) suggest measures for organisational leaders to foster intentional learning
elements that motivate interns to make the most of their industry experience. Firstly,
interns must be taught to organise projects given them according to goals and not topics.
There should be a breakdown of the project given and the intended goal to be achieved. It
aids interns in accepting challenges and working hard to achieve organisational goals.
The second is to highlight a few areas of organisational work to interns in order to have
in-depth knowledge. The intention of a lot of organisational leaders is to have interns
rotate from one department to the other but this method of socialisation has proven futile
(Snell, 2006). It prevents interns from developing pragmatic ways of solving problems.
31
The third component according to McManus and Feinstein (2008) is to encourage interns
to reflect on their activities and results and learning to reflect on themselves as agents of
change. They suggest that in the course of a task, a supervisor or mentor can interrupt and
help the intern to reflect on what has been done so far instead of working through to the
end and evaluating at the end of the task. This helps to improve the quality of the project
given even before the end of the project. It also makes the intern responsible for actions
taken. Lastly, McManus and Feinstein (2008) propose that organisational leaders should
help interns develop meta-cognitive skills. Meta-cognitive is a term that describes the
steps that people take to control and adjust the development of their cognitive activity
(Von Wright, 1992 as cited in McManus and Feinstein, 2008). To learn such skills is to
acquire ways and processes of modifying thinking patterns (cognitive processes).
2.10
Summary
This chapter reviewed studies which are related to the current study. Common themes
that emerged from the literature are Advertising industry in Ghana,
Communication and socialisation for interns and organisations Profile of organisations,
Concept of Internship, Types of Internship, Interns’ Experiences, Internship and
Organisational Communication, and Internship and Organisational Socialisation. The
literature reviewed established that communication is an integral component of
socialisation, without which assimilation will be difficult or even impossible.
32
CHAPTER THREE
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.0
Introduction
The chapter discusses the organisational assimilation theory as propounded by Fred
Jablin (1982) to explain the current phenomenon. The four phases of the assimilation
theory are expounded with different views from researchers. Also, humorous
communication as a component of assimilation as introduced by Ojha (2005) is reviewed.
3.1
Background
A theory is made up of a group of coherent ideas that offer explanation to a specific set of
phenomena (Zikmud, Babin, Carr & Griffin, 2010). Theory forms the basis of a
phenomenon (Sage Encyclopaedia, 2008). It is a reasoned explanation of how a
phenomenon might occur. It is important therefore to have a theoretical basis for every
study including the current one. The objective of the study is to investigate experiences of
student interns in relation to communication and socialisation processes. The current
study is however anchored on the organisational assimilation theory as propounded by
Jablin (1982). The organisational assimilation theory is employed in this study to explain
the organisational behaviour of student interns, their co-workers and supervisors.
3.2
Organisational Assimilation Theory
Organisational assimilation theory was developed by Fred Jablin in 1982 to explain the
learning behaviours of organisational members using communication. The theory posits
that individuals move from being outside an organisation to full membership within an
organisation through a four-stage process (Jablin, 2001). Organisational assimilation
theory is generally defined as the process of learning about and learning how to function
33
in an organisational environment (Jablin, 1982, 1987, 2001; Myers & McPhee, 2006;
Ojha, 2005). In the assimilation process, organisational members learn their roles and
functions in the organisation through communication and socialisation. The assimilation
process as stated by Myers and McPhee (2006) involves the organisation as the entity
socialising its members and newcomers’ successful assimilation into the organisation.
This process, according to Ojha (2005) requires careful consideration for both the
organisation and the newcomers. While the organisation provides the enabling
environment for learning, the individual on the other hand makes the most of the
environment provided (Cooper-Thomas & Anderson, 2005; Myers & McPhee, 2006).
Communication is considered an essential tool used to absorb new employees into the
organisation and similarly, individuals use this tool to create and establish a niche in that
organisation (Gibson & Papa, 2000). Through interaction with other organisational
members over time, newcomers make sense of organisational culture and norms (Zorn &
Gregory, 2005).
Myers and McPhee (2006) note that the more a newcomer makes contact with a
particular employee, the more influence that employee exerts over him/her in the
assimilation process. They further argue that newcomers are more likely to be found in
the niche of their supervisors because of their close contacts with them. They consider
organisational assimilation as a process that occurs as members interact at the
interpersonal and group levels in the organisation.
Similarly, Long, Kohut & Picherit-Duthler (2005) used the organisational assimilation
theory to frame the argument that supervisors are key organisational members in the
assimilation process of newcomers. They help to create a shared environment for
34
newcomers. In addition, supervisors may serve as role models who “filter and interpret
formal downward directed management messages, have positional power to administer
rewards and punishments, are a central source of information related to job and
organisational expectations as well as feedback on task performance” (Long, Kohut &
Picherit-Duthler, 2005, Pg.2122).
3.3
Organisational assimilation process
Jablin (1982, 1987, 2001) describes four stages of assimilation that include Anticipatory
Socialisation,
the
Encounter
stage,
Metamorphosis
and
disengagement/exit.
Communication that occurs in each stage in divergent, however, each of the phases is
interlinked with the other.
3.3.1
Anticipatory Socialisation
This is the first phase of the assimilation process. The entry of an individual into an
organisation or a new environment can be a period of uncertainty; however, an
organisational newcomer may have a set of beliefs and expectation before entering into
the organisation. In order to ameliorate the uncertainty and foster smooth entry into the
organisation, institutions usually organise pre-entry orientation for students (AnaneFenin, 2008). Jablin (2001) argues that anticipatory socialisation has embedded within it
two interrelated phases, namely: vocational anticipatory socialisation and organisational
anticipatory socialisation. He explains that vocational anticipatory socialisation is the
previous experiences one has received from childhood, the home, schools, society,
friends and media prior to organisational work. The latter, organisational anticipatory
socialisation is the knowledge an individual receives that causes expectation in the
process of seeking a job. This study focuses on organisational anticipatory socialisation.
35
Ojha (2005) indicates that anticipatory socialisation occurs the first time an individual
joins an organisation. Newcomers upon research have preconceived knowledge regarding
their roles, work in the organisation and the organisation itself (Miller, 2006). Ojha
(2005) further argues that the early stages of a newcomers’ experience is a follow-up of
interns’ school orientation.
Myers, Jahn, Gailliard & Stoltzfus (2011) focused on ‘Vocational Anticipatory
Socialisation’ (VAS) which they established as a subarea of socialisation/assimilation
theory. In their work, it is explained that VAS demonstrates how individuals learn about
and develop interests in educational and career development. How newcomers learn
about and develop interests in organisational behaviour depends on who the individual
has the closest contact with (Myers et al., 2011). It is further argued that individuals learn
from various sources that influence their expectations and beliefs about their career
interests. They state that there is a connection between the decisions individuals take and
the “source of information, types of messages, and the conditions by which information is
shared” (Pg. 88), hence, the need for information seeking prior to organisational entry.
This is a critical stage for students because it aids in career interest and development. In
their conclusion, Myers et al. (2011) propose an anticipatory socialisation model for
students in making sense of their initial experiences in industry. They further state that an
individual’s ability to perform in an organisation does not depend solely on ability but on
prior preparation about the profession.
3.3.2
Encounter Phase
The second phase of the assimilation process, also called the encounter phase is
concerned with the initial experiences that help newcomers understand organisational
36
culture and their roles and functions within it (Jablin, 2001). This is the period where the
individual learns to be accepted into the organisation. Here, newcomers learn to observe
organisational culture and norms (Heiss & Carmack, 2012). Through verbal and nonverbal communication processes the newcomers acquire knowledge that helps them get
used to the new work environment. Through this process new members develop their
own values. This stage also gives way for individuals to create a niche and
communication process, non-verbal cues (Heiss & Carmack, 2012). Within this period
newcomers and interns for that matter become aware of their locus of control. Encounters
with organisational members aid newcomers to move from the anticipatory stage towards
metamorphosis (Ojha, 2005). Humour can be an effective strategy to test what genre of
communication occurs in the organisation. It also facilitates the socialisation process.
3.3.3
Metamorphosis
Metamorphosis, which is also referred to as Role Management stage, is the third stage of
the assimilation process (Jablin, 2001). This is the stage where uncertainties experienced
during the anticipatory and encounter phases have been managed. Individuals go through
a psychological adjustment and move from being preoccupied with their transition to
maintaining their new situations (Schlossberg, 1981). In the metamorphosis phase, a
clearer understanding of organisation-acceptable attitudes is gained as members begin to
regard their role as individual-oriented (Jablin, 1987).
In the early part of the metamorphosis stage the new member begins to alter his or her
behaviour to suit the values of the organisation. In effect, the new member transitions
from new member to an insider, occurring when the new member is given the
opportunity to give their opinions and are included in making decisions and given
37
responsibilities. The new member can negotiate some aspects of their role at the
organisation, but for the most part they have to adapt to the existing status in place. The
process shows acceptance. The new members experience acceptance as they learn the
specific behaviours and attitudes related to the organisation (Jablin, 2001).
Kramer (2010) sees the metamorphosis process as the stage where new members of an
organisation go through continuous changes and familiarise better with the culture of the
organisation. The new members come to know and appreciate the values and skills
expected of them. This appreciation of the values, the integration of the employee in the
organisation, as well as the acceptance by higher up members generate positive feelings
towards the organisation.
In this stage, the knowledge of the right organisational behaviour is instilled in the
member. This is because over time, the individual has been engaged in the assimilation
process.
3.3.4
Disengagement/Exit
The Disengagement/Exit stage is known to be the final stage of the organisational
assimilation process. This stage is the process of leaving the organisation for reasons such
as moving to a new organisation, end of internship process, a transfer to a new location,
retirement from work, or a job layoff (Jablin, 1982). It is also regarded as the process of
leaving the organisation which includes the individual beginning to disregard the norms
and values of the current organisation (Jablin, 1982, 1987, 2001). The new member
begins acquiring new information regarding the organisation that they intend to enter. In
effect, the process of organisational assimilation becomes a cycle as anticipatory
38
socialisation begins again (Ojha, 2005). This is because, while disengagement marks the
end of one cycle, a new cycle begins with anticipatory assimilation when a member
moves on.
3.4
Organisational Assimilation and Humour
The study of humour as a common component of all the stages of the assimilation
process was by Ojha (2005) who argued that humour had always been part of
organisational communication but has not been recognised as an important tool in
assimilation. Recognising its relevance in assimilation, Ojha (2005) integrated the
concept of humour into Jablin’s organisational assimilation theory. He states that humour
in communication is an essential component when absorbing new members into an
organisation and argues that humour has always been interrelated with the organisational
assimilation process and might require a detailed theory test. Findings of his research
established that careful use of humour in the organisational assimilation process can help
members to go through the process with much ease.
Within communication theory, humour can be said to have a multiplicity of roles and
functions within the organisation (Heiss & Carmack, 2012; Lynch, 2002, 2009; Lynch &
Schaefer, 2008; Ojha, 2005; Martin, 2004). In a review of Heiss & Carmack’s (2012)
study, it was established that humour is used by organisational members to discuss
contradiction of power, structure, norms, culture and identity. Humour contributes to
organisational socialisation when both newcomer and employee have a mutual
understanding of the humorous communication (Lynch, 2002).
39
Heiss & Carmack (2012) investigated how humour communication was used by
organisational members to negotiate the entry of newcomers. They found that humour
aids newcomers to ease stress and uncertainties while making sense of the organisational
world. They further argue that during this period, newcomers learn about organisational
norms, routines, values, and role expectations. Anxiety and uncertainty is usually built up
during organisational entry, however, it is important for all organisational members to
consider humour as a communicative tool to relieve tension. This is because while
organisational members teach newcomers organisational norms and culture, newcomers
have to learn these rules in an unfamiliar environment.
Socialisation of student interns can be a complex process and need much attention from
organisational leaders and members (Gaitens, 2000). Hence, the use of humour in the
assimilation process of student interns in the organisation. Orientation programmes,
organisational code of ethic books, and mentoring schemes are some of the formal
communications used in socialising newcomer (Jablin, 2001). However, Jablin (2001)
indicates that assimilation continues even after these processes end till the individual
exits from the organisation. Apart from newcomers learning about the organisational life,
informal interactions such as sports, family life and education occur among employees.
These informal and sometimes humorous interactions provide a psychological support for
newcomers (Ojha, 2005).
Lynch (2002) indicates that the place of humour in the organisation can be complex. He
adds that humorous communication that occurs in formal structures contributes to
organisational contradictions. Humour, although helps to create links with co-workers,
yet when not mutually interpreted can cause division in the organisation. Members of a
40
particular group that share a common humorous language are usually superior over others
(Lynch, 2002). Lynch (2002) further states that sometimes humour shared when
contradicts with other people’s ideologies can create tension in the environment.
However, he concludes that humour can act both as resistance and control measures in
the organisation.
Malone (1980) (as cited in Romero & Cruthirds, 2006) refers to humour as a “doubleedged sword”. This is due to its ability to be perceived as humorous by one party and
offensive by another. Humour should therefore, be considered carefully before its use
because it can result in both negative and positive outcomes. Formal settings in the
organisation makes humour a sensitive subject to deal with. Negative humour in the
organisation can result in marginalisation, humiliation, inferiority and cause distress.
They state that jokes and funny stories can mostly be used appropriately by members
with a sense of humour, though all members can employ the use of humour. Additionally,
Romero & Cruthirds (2006) propose humour styles that can be adopted by organisational
members to maximize positive outcomes of organisational goals.
Contrary to Romero & Cruthirds’ (2006) findings, Tracy, Myers & Scott (2006) suggest
that the manner in which employees use self-deprecating humour can be used ironically
to enhance one’s identity. Using interviews and participant observation, Tracy et al.
(2006) conducted an exploratory study to identify how humour enables human service
workers to manage identity and make sense of their work in relation to preferred notions
of self. Findings indicate that humour is not just giving an obvious joke but also that kind
of communication that makes situations ‘light’ and ‘playful’ (Martin, 2004). The
contradictory aspect of humour in formal structures is that situations that call for laughter
41
from other organisational members may not be funny or taken light by others who are
unfamiliar with the organisational setting. Hence, during organisational entry,
organisational members need to consider carefully the kind of humorous communication
that can be understood by newcomers. However, once members go through the encounter
stage, there is the likelihood of having similar interpretations to humour. Tracy et al.
(2006) add that humour serves as “an unfolding and collaborative process” that gives
organisational members a shared meaning of communicative messages. They note that
humour is often used as a tool for normalising certain thinking patterns and for
socialising newcomers and clients.
3.5
Relevance of Theory to the Study
This study extends previous work on organisational socialisation theory by exploring
how student interns make sense of organisational socialisation and humour. Kim et al.
(2012) in their recommendation suggested that supervisors and employers should
integrate student interns into organisational work in order for them to learn organisational
skills. Assimilation of student interns may be difficult if not looked at through the lens of
Jablin’s Organisational Assimilation theory. Through socialisation, interns learn
additional skills either than their area of interest for career development.
The theory is relevant to this study because interns need to feel they belong to a social
network (Ryan & Deci, 2000) and this can be achieved through organisational
assimilation. They indicate that the more interns are absorbed into industry, the more
motivated they will be to learn as expected.
42
Also, Provencal (2005) indicates that the rate of assimilation for tertiary institution
graduates in industry is slow and needed to be boosted through internship programmes.
He indicates that with the effort from organisational leaders interns will be absorbed into
the industry. This study therefore, seeks to explore the role of organisational leaders in
socialising and assimilating student interns with communication as the main tool. More
specifically, the study explores how interns make sense of organisational communication
and navigate experiences related to organisational assimilation.
Finally, this study draws attention to the use of humour in formal organisational settings.
As stated by Ojha (2005) the theory of assimilation is not complete without the inclusion
of the informal forms of communication. However, the theory of organisational
assimilation and humour seems more appropriate in understanding the communication
and socialisation behaviours of organisational members.
3.6
Summary
This chapter explored the theory of organisational assimilation as propounded by Fred
Jablin. The theory posits that individuals move from being outside an organisation to full
membership within an organization through a three-stage process (Jablin, 2001). There
are four phases within the organisational assimilation process that newcomers go through.
These are the Anticipatory Socialisation, the Encounter stage, Metamorphosis and
disengagement/exit. Humorous communication has been studied as a vital component in
the assimilation process (Ojha, 2005). The chapter also examines the relevance of the
theory to the current phenomenon.
43
CHAPTER FOUR
METHODOLOGY
4.0
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the research techniques adopted for this study with the aim of
achieving the research objectives. This section indicates the systematic procedure and the
principles used in the collection and analysis of data. It comprises the research design,
description of the target population, sample size and sampling technique, as well as the
data collection and analysis procedure.
4.1
Research Design
To achieve the objectives of this study, multiple case study approach was adopted. A
multiple or collective case study is a form of qualitative research method where
information analysed is elicited from and across different settings (Baxter & Jack, 2008).
This design was chosen because it enables the researcher to explore several cases in order
to understand the similarities and differences in the phenomena.
Persons interviewed were sampled from four advertising agencies in Ghana. For the
reason that internship is an already existing organised programme, the study was based
on the phenomenological approach. This is because participants chosen were undergoing
the experience under investigation and had rich thoughts relevant to the study (Ary,
Jacobs, Razavieh & Sorensen, 2006).
4.2
Population
Identifying the population and sample of a research is an essential condition for getting
relevant information for any study. Nworgu (2006) classifies population into two groups,
44
namely, target and accessible population. The target population comprise all the members
of a specified group to which the investigation is related, while the accessible population
is defined in terms of those elements in the group within the reach of the researcher, also
known as the sample (Nworgu, 2006).
In this study, all students from higher educational institutions in Ghana interning in any
registered advertising agency in Accra form the target population. However, not all
universities in Ghana have inculcated internship in the formal education. Furthermore,
the periods allotted to the internship programme vary from school to school. The various
institutions undertake the exercise in the course of the first semester vacation, second
semester, or during vacations. Also, some students go on internship on voluntary basis
without the input of their schools. Therefore, advertising agencies sampled for the
exercise were four, all in Accra. Also, all supervisors and co-workers in the various
advertising agencies and the National Accreditation Board form part of the population.
4.3
Sampling Technique and Sample
Sampling is a process of selecting a set of units from the population which is accessible
to the researcher (Lindlof and Taylor, 2002). Convenience is at the core of sampling in
qualitative research (Baxter and Jack, 2008). The current study adopted the purposive or
Judgement sampling strategy. For the purpose that not all advertising agencies in Accra
had interns at the time data was being collected. Supervisors in the various advertising
agencies were willing to provide the needed information for the study. Baxter and Jack
(2008) emphasise that availability of participants who will provide data for the study is an
important consideration in purposive sampling technique. This method is used to sample
45
elements judged to be typical of a specific study and are chosen from the larger
population (Ary et al., 2006; Quashigah, 2008).
Boinde (2009) used purposive sampling to select final year students in three colleges
because of their perceived advantage of three years internship experience. Also, Nsoh
(2006) used this method to select only lecturers who had gathered sufficient experience in
supervising student interns for a particular period. This method is used to handpick
relevant sampling units among the lot.
In this study, the purposive sampling method was used to target student interns in
selected advertising agencies. Out of the eighty-nine registered advertising agencies,
DDP, Origin8 Ghana, MultiPixel Ltd. and STB McCann were sampled for the data
collection. This choice stems from the fact that they admitted interns in the month of June
when other advertising agencies were still recruiting interns. Also, the four selected
advertising agencies admit interns every vacation to add up to the workforce in the
organisation and also to serve as on-the-job training for upcoming industry workers.
Based on the focus of the study, sampling units were student interns, supervisors and coworkers in the selected advertising agencies and a representative from National
Accreditation Board (NAB). Student interns are the primary sampling units due to the
fact that the research is geared specifically towards verifying experiences of student
interns. Supervisors and co-workers are secondary sampling units because they provided
information for the researcher to compare interns’ experiences with. Also, a
representative from the National Accreditation Board was interviewed to find out
whether or not there is a policy document on internship and their take on how effective
46
internship should be undertaken. For the sake of ethical issues, names of respondents
have not been stated in the work.
4.4
Sample Size
A total of sixteen (16) respondents were selected and interviewed for the study. There
were seven (7) student interns, four (4) supervisors and four (4) co-workers in all from
the four advertising agencies. There was one (1) respondent from the National
Accreditation Board (NAB).
Table 1 shows the categories of respondents who were involved in the study.
Table 1:
Distribution of Respondents
Category
Male
Female
Total
Interns
4
3
7
Supervisors
4
0
4
Co-workers
4
0
4
NAB
0
1
1
Total
16
Students were selected because they are perceived to have first hand information on their
own experiences. Also, the study sought to explore these experiences from the
perspective of the students. Dahl (2011) found that supervisors play an important role in
moulding the experiences of interns. Based on his findings, supervisors were chosen.
Also, supervisors are more likely to understand the communication that goes into interns’
socialisation in connection with the purpose they seek it to achieve. Co-workers
47
according to Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg (2003) influence interns’ socialisation
because of the interpersonal communication that occurs frequently. They seem to have
more contact with interns and interns are likely to avoid pretence when they are with
them. For this reason co-workers were also chosen to obtain additional information on the
experiences of interns. Data collected from supervisors and co-workers were compared to
that of the interns to know whether there is consistency in the way communication and
socialisation were perceived, and hence, the importance each of the parties attach to it.
The researcher sought to obtain an internship policy document from the National
Accreditation Board but got none. It however became necessary to be granted an
interview.
4.5
Data Collection Method
The data for this study were collected through in-depth interviews and internship
evaluation forms. Interview is one of the most widely used techniques in qualitative
research (Ary et al., 2006). It was used because of the depth of information needed for the
study. According to Boyce & Neale (2006), interviews provide much more detailed
information than what is available through other data collection methods. They also
provide a more relaxed atmosphere for collection of detailed information. Structured
interview is usually scheduled for getting particular information while semi-structured is
flexible. An interview guide was used but some questions were modified based on issues
that came up in the course of the interview (Lindlof and Taylor, 2002; Rubin, Rubin &
Piele, 2005). An interview guide is important for maintaining uniformity in data because
it enhances comparison and prediction of responses. Darkwa & Kyei (2008) used
interviews to conclude that the benefits of internship programmes are immeasurable. In
48
their work, they conducted in-depth interview with students and lecturers to come out
with the challenges faced by the internship programme. Similarly, in Bukaliya (2012),
students from the faculties of Arts and Education in the Zimbabwe Open University were
interviewed to establish some values of internship. He concludes that internships assist
interns to bridge the gap between the academic learning process and the practical reality.
Data were collected from four different advertising agencies over the course of three
months. In selecting persons for interview, researchers look out for people whose
experiences are central to the research problem (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002). Considering
the central idea of my study, interns from the advertising industry were used as
informants. The researcher first visited the advertising agencies to build rapport with the
respective respondents. This was because respondents must get a feel of proposed
questions to be asked and to put them at ease. Quashigah (2008, pg.23) notes that during
interviews, the interviewer must provide an atmosphere where information elicited will
be “reliable and valid”. One of such ways is to create a “friendly atmosphere” by visiting
the respondent at least once before the interview. With permission from the respondents,
the interviews were recorded. However, due to security reasons, three of the respondents
asked that salient points are jotted down instead of recording the entire interview. A
detailed interview guide based on the research questions was used to guide the researcher
in the interview. Instruments for recording were a 2GB HP voice/audio recorder and a
Toshiba (NB 505) notebook. This allowed the researcher to capture the interview as it
was delivered. With the interview guide, the interns provided information on their
challenges and opportunities in the various agencies. The recorded interviews were
transcribed using VLC slow-downer. Interviews were basically in English, there was
49
however no need to translate before transcribing. Interpretation was done based on the
interviewees’ mood, choice of words and phrases used.
In a study to investigate whether interns are meeting the expectations of industry insiders,
Sapp & Zhang (2009) sampled students’ evaluation forms. They concluded that interns
were not meeting the expectation of supervisors in areas such as initiative, writing skills
and oral communication skills. The current study sampled four internship evaluation
forms from four universities in Ghana to examine the parameters of assessment of
students. These universities were University of Education, Winneba (UEW), Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Ashesi University and
African University College of Communication (AUCC). They were chosen because out
of the seven interns interviewed, three were from UEW, two from KNUST and one from
AUCC. Also, due to the purposive sampling technique employed in the study,
organisations which had students from the above mentioned universities were sampled
because at the time of the investigation those organisations had interns who would work
till all needed information was elicited.
4.6
Data Analysis
Exploratory thematic analysis based on a study by Bloch (2011) was used. In his work, a
collection of student interns’ evaluation report written by interns was collated for
analysis. After exploring the reports, professionalization themes were outlined for
analysis. His conclusion indicates that while there have been changes in conducting
internship programmes, there are still challenges being faced by students in their
professionalization process. Exploratory thematic analysis used in qualitative data
50
analysis is illustrated by the deficiency in the definition of themes (Onwuegbuzie &
Teddlie, 2003 as cited in González, 2010). In Qualitative research, exploratory methods
are known to be the most efficient way of defining problems in details (Aaker, Kumar &
Day, 2010). As suggested by González (2010), a close reading of the transcribed
interviews was done in order to extract emerging themes from the raw data.
In social research, documents are seen as channels of communication (Kumekpor, 2002).
Document analysis however, is exploring communication messages that can be
understood. The current study analysed evaluation forms from UEW, KNUST and
AUCC. These forms are usually given to supervisors in the organisation to give an
appraisal of interns’ performances after the internship period. From the analysis of the
data, ten themes emerged.
4.7
Summary
Chapter four introduces the methodology used and the rationale for using them. It
outlines the research design, population and sampling technique, data collection methods,
data analysis methods. This section identifies the population as all interns in advertising
agencies in Ghana. However, due to proximity and convenience, the researcher focused
on interns in four advertising agencies in Accra, the capital city of Ghana. In all, nine
interns were located for this exercise. In order to get rich information, data were collected
using interviews. Interviews were transcribed and a close reading done to bring out the
themes and relevant issues.
The present study identifies experiences of interns as a result of organisational
communication and socialisation. In addressing this problem, information from the
51
interns, supervisors and co-workers were collected and analysed. Data analysis was done
by exploratory thematic analysis (Bloch, 2011).
52
CHAPTER FIVE
FINDINGS AND ANALYSES
5.0
Introduction
This chapter is a presentation and analysis of findings of data collected from the field.
Data were collected primarily through interviews and documents. The main issues in the
data were organised into themes and discussed. In all, sixteen (16) respondents were
interviewed, out of which were seven (7) interns, four (4) supervisors, four (4) coworkers and one (1) representative from the National Accreditation Board (NAB).
In this section, the themes discussed are:
1. Interns’ Socialisation Process
2. Adaptive flexibility
3. Learning Experiences
4. Informal Communication and Humour
5. Internship Pre-placements
6. Interns as Extra-Duty staff
7. Intern-Supervisor Communication
8. Roles of supervisors in intern socialisation
9. Roles of co-workers in intern socialisation
10. Criteria for Assessment: Internship Evaluation Form
11. Perception of Organisational members on Internship
12. Organisational Culture and Interns’ Motivation
13. Measures that can be adopted to improve the productivity of internship
53
5.1
RQ1: What are the Perspectives of Student Interns in Organisations’
Socialisation and Communication Process?
5.1.1
Internship Pre-placements
Kiser (2000) as cited in Woo (2013, p.7) defines pre-placement as “all the activities
before students actually start their internship, such as searching for an internship,
discussions with academic advisors, and contacting the future supervisors”. It falls within
anticipatory socialisation according to Jablin (1982, 1987, and 2001) which is the phase
where an individual acquires a set of beliefs and expectations before entering the
organisation. What an intern experiences during the anticipatory socialisation stage
determines his/her level of clarity or uncertainty upon organisational entry. Findings of
this study confirm Woo’s (2013) discovery that searching for host organisations for
internship was solely the responsibility of interns. Also, Ojha (2005) holds the view that
information sought prior to organisational entry informs the newcomer about their roles,
work in the organisation and the organisation itself. The current study shows that
although students sought for placement themselves, information gained from the
organisations was minimal. Interns confirmed that what they were looking for was
advertising agencies and nothing more. Myers et al. (2011) opine that the anticipatory
socialisation stage should enable the newcomer to learn about and develop interest in
organisational behaviour. Also, Kelly, Noonan and Moonagle (2011) noted that students’
preparedness for internship depends largely on course work taken and pre-entry
orientation. From the views of the interns it can be concluded that information gained
prior to organisational entry was not enough to enable them gain interest in the
organisation’s culture. Except for intern 2 and intern 1 who stated that “I knew about this
54
company and their operations even before I went to the university” and “I know the
owner personally, so I know a lot of what goes on here” all other interns chanced upon
the companies in their search for placements. Supervisor 3 opined:
Sometimes students would have to go round looking for the placements of intern
which shouldn’t be their responsibility. They should know which companies
they’re going to work in by the time of their internship. I believe this is the work
of the schools. They should incorporate this programme into their curriculum so
that they can go round and look for places, companies that would be capable of
training their students 1
Supervisor 3 sees the search for internship placements as the responsibility of the
institutions and not the interns. It implies that when interns are left to look for placements
by themselves they could get organisations that do not have the machineries and
equipment needed to train them.
One of the challenges that came up was an initial intern’s mistake affecting all
subsequent interns (16). Some interns said that their difficulty in getting placements was
due to other interns from their institution who had not performed as expected. Hence,
upcoming interns from that institution are branded with that performance. It makes it
difficult for students to get access to some organisations.
5.1.2
Interns as Extra-Duty staff
The whole essence of socialisation is for a newcomer to learn to function in an
organisational environment (Myers and McPhee, 2006). Assimilation occurs when
1
Supervisor 3, Tuesday, August 07, 2012, 12:53:31 PM
55
newcomers know their roles and perform them consistently (McManus & Feinstein,
2008). This boosts their confidence and helps them settle in the organisation. As much as
interns learn to perform as organisational members, Manford (2002) as cited in Gyamfi
(2003) identified the importance of putting theory into practice, and said that it was the
best way of acquiring skills. It implies that it is important for interns to be given roles
consistent with what is learnt in school in order for them to be able to make a link.
However, a social science student interning in an advertising agency noted that he was
made to do odd jobs like photocopying and making phone calls.
Supervisor 1 confirmed the intern’s assertion and said, “There are certain areas in the
organisation which are quite specific so it is not easy for an intern to walk in and just
perform but like Jeff, he is doing well. He is doing little, little stuff”. The stress on “little
little stuff” illustrates that much effort has not been put into the learning experiences of
interns. Again, supervisor 4 said: “If there’s so much to do, then I ask the interns to
handle some of the job. The work we do here is very sensitive and needs experienced
people to handle them”. Intern 7 stated “I am the only lady in the department so aside my
usual office duties I also get food for the employees...well, not that I don’t like it but I
wish I’ll do more of office work”. Task role clarity according to Wen (2010) is an
important determinant for an effective internship. He notes that when work assigned to
interns is poorly planned interns get frustrated and are not able to perform. Intern 7’s
experience brings the assumption that socialisation can be affected by gender.
While three interns performed other duties like running errands, cleaning and making tea,
the other four were given responsibilities consistent with theory learnt in school. Interns
recognized that being assigned to projects was the best way of maximizing internship.
56
Concerning the roles of interns there were two schools of thought. One idea was that
since the purpose of internship is to learn, the intern should be exposed to all aspects of
work including the legal aspects. The other school of thought argues that interns are not
permanent staff and should not be exposed to some legal matters in the organisation.
Intern 1 agreed with the former school of thought and stated:
Yesterday we had a meeting with some foreign clients, and because I usually took
notes for my supervisor, he asked me to join the meeting. One of the managers
objected to it and asked me to go back to the office because I was only an intern
and that they were there for serious stuff. There was a serious contention between
them because of me. Since then, there has been a problem in drawing the line
between what I should be allowed to do as an intern and what I should not do2
Intern 4 had this to say about getting involved in extra organisational work: “I don’t want
to get into trouble with the company’s legal stuff. If it’s designing or copy writing, I’ll try
my hands on it”. From this statement, it can be deduced that not all interns like to get
involved in extra organisational duties, no matter how helpful or not it may be. From
these two schools of thoughts, it appears that interns are treated differently by different
organisational members. This goes to confirm that little or no orientation is given to
organisational members before internship programme begins. It is indicated in The
Employers’ Internship Toolkit (2005) that in order for internship to be a win-win affair,
both the intern and the supervisor should be oriented and trained.
2
Intern1, Thursday, July 26, 2012, 10:23:40 AM
57
Because there is not much time to concentrate on interns’ building career skills, interns
end up not benefitting much from the internship programme. Some interns talked about
how uncomfortable they were about their ideas not being accepted by their supervisors.
In as much as interns need to be concentrated on, there isn’t much time to consider all
their mistakes and help them through the advertising process.
The assimilation theory is cyclical, such that after interns are done with the internship
programme, their experience in the organization serves as an anticipatory socialisation
phase for their post-graduation employment (Callanan & Benzing, 2004). It gives them a
platform upon which to form their expectations and beliefs. However, if their internship
experience is not successful they have to go through the process all over; and this can
delay their assimilation process. It is imperative that the intern is given as much
responsibility and diversity in their work as possible just like other employees (Chartered
Institute for Personal Development, 2009).
5.1.3
Intern-Supervisor Communication
Aarons (2006) indicates that the supervisor-supervisee relationship is a potentially
important point of influence in affecting interns’ attitudes. Supervisor-intern
communication can be classified under upward communication which can be defined as
the exchange of information from employees on a lower rank to that of the higher rank
(Baker, 2002). Mazzei (2010) indicates that this form of communication is important in
the development of every organisation, however, it is found to be rare. Similar to
Mazzei’s (2010) findings, the current study indicates that the communication between
supervisors and interns seem to be concentrated on the downward communication. While
supervisors give interns instructions and direct them as to what they should do, interns do
58
not tend to ask questions and communicate with their supervisors. Fishback (2011)
explains that under the authoritarian leadership style the decision-making is less creative
because subordinates always work under pressure. This can be seen in a statement by
supervisor 1 who indicates:
The working environment is new to them so at times they feel intimidated. You
are within people who they think are not their matches in terms of knowledge
acquired. I personally feel that they feel intimidated especially when they are not
getting things right and you try to correct them3
From this statement, it can be deduced that communication between interns and
supervisors has not been successful. Although the same supervisor stated:
For us because this is a client service department in an advertising firm,
relationship is very paramount to us; it reflects in whatever we do. So we treat
them like our clients. It’s a major indicator of success within the department,
human relationship how we deal with people around us. The department is
basically a team4
There seems to be a communication gap between interns and their supervisors. The
inability of interns and their supervisors to communicate effectively can be attributed to
the formal manner in which the supervisors relate with the interns. Nordin et al. (2011)
note that formal communication has been proven to be a less effective form of
communication than that of the informal. Intern 1 confirms this assertion by noting that
“There is a lot of pressure here so everything has to be done in a well organised manner. I
3
4
Supervisor 1, Thursday, July 26, 2012, 2:10:59 PM
Supervisor 1, Thursday, July 26, 2012, 2:10:59 PM
59
have to be sure of the question I want to ask otherwise it will be seen as a waste of time”.
The introduction of humour in organisational communication and socialisation can ease
tension (Ojha, 2005).
Contrary to the communication experiences of interns, supervisor 4 said:
What we do is that we work together when they come. We tell them to ask
questions when they are bothered with any issue. They are assigned under
supervisors. From time to time, the student intern is taken to site to appreciate
works we’ve done. Experience is not obtained in the classroom5
Findings of this study create the impression that supervisors do not really know the needs
of interns. This can be attributed to the communication gap that exists between interns
and their supervisors. Johnikin (2008) opines that the unique relationships one develops
with others directly affect and influence mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual
stability.
Furthermore, three out of seven interns established that they spent a lot of time with their
supervisors than any other employee. However, spending more time with their
supervisors rather produced a negative outcome for these interns. Some of the interns
stated that their supervisors mostly kept a close watch on them and made them feel
intimidated. This made them feel nervous sometimes and robbed them of their
independence. McManus & Feinstein (2008) note in their study that interns’ ability to
contribute more to organisational work stems from the level of independence given them.
5
Supervisor 4, Monday, August 13, 2012, 12:32:12 PM
60
Interns’ concerns about the leadership style of their supervisors appear not to have come
to the notice of their supervisors as supervisor 3 stated: “interns are green leaves, they
don’t know much. They need the direction and guidance of a supervisor”.
Fishback (2011) indicates that the leader who provides little or no opportunity for
followers to make inputs into the organisation is an authoritative leader. He further notes
that it is important for leaders to use humour to create relationship with their followers.
Using humour helps to make followers feel at ease to share their view to achieve a larger
goal than would have been achieved by the ideas of just the supervisor. This is in
consonance with Ojha’s (2006) introduction of humour into organisational socialisation
which posits that humour makes interns feel at ease and negotiate their way through
organisational culture and norms. Dahl (2011) indicates that in order for interns to gain
autonomy, there is the need for supervisors to allow them to pursue projects that do not
need continuous supervision.
Four interns on the other hand, agreed that their leaders were liberal and allowed them to
make suggestions and inputs. The democratic leader according to Fishback (2011) allows
followers to participate in decision-making and creativity. This kind of supervisor is
perceived as a mentor (Lazovsky & Shimoni, 2007). Mentoring according to Lazovsky &
Shimoni (2007) is a “helping relationship with the primary aim to assist the student in
achieving long-term, broad goals”. He further points out that a mentor may involve
his/her emotional and psychological support in the process of training a ‘mentee’ (intern).
Also, there is a “direct assistance with career and professional development, and role
modelling”. In their opinion, both the intern and mentor benefit from mentoring because
61
the intern is allowed to make inputs which may be helpful to the mentor. This is
consistent with Jablin’s assimilation theory which posits that a newcomer is able to
transition from new member to an insider, when he/she is given responsibilities and given
the opportunity to make suggestions which are included in decision-making (Jablin,
2001). Also, as outlined by The Employers’ Toolkit (2005), in order for an internship
experience to be a meaningful one, there is the need for the provision of a supervisor and
a mentor.
It seems that the concerns of interns do not come to the notice of their supervisors. The
import is that there is a communication gap between interns and their supervisors.
Concerning communication gap, supervisor 1 noted: “There may be a day that the
supervisor may be in a bad mood, the interns should be able to know that and not
interpret it as bad communication because days are not the same”. If there is a mutual
relationship between interns and supervisors interns could make supervisors benefit from
the relationship (Lazovsky & Shimoni, 2007).
It is important for industry supervisors to note that when interns’ motivations for working
are realised, they bring fresh approaches to the workplace when they are given the chance
to express themselves (Bailey, Hughes & Barr 2000 as cited in Sapp & Zhang, 2009).
The study revealed that interns appeared to be more comfortable with co-workers than
with their supervisors. The import of it is that co-workers served as a bridge between
interns and their supervisors. Based on these findings, it is clear that although interns may
not be comfortable with their supervisors, the presence of other employees makes them
comfortable which facilitates the learning process.
62
5.2
RQ2: How do Elements of Socialisation and Communication Impact on
Interns’ Experiences?
5.2.1
Interns’ Socialisation Process
Organisational socialisation is the acquisition of the needed knowledge, culture and
behaviour in order to be successfully absorbed into an organisation (Wesson & Gogus,
2005). Internship programmes require a well drawn orientation and socialisation
programme that can adequately socialise and integrate students into the world of work.
This is necessary due to the complexity of the state of interns, who at the time are neither
students nor permanent workers of any organisation (Gaitens, 2000). According to
Jablin’s assimilation theory, when interns successfully go through the assimilation
process through socialisation, they are able to acquire some vital organisational skills
(Jablin, 2001) which is the primary purpose of internship. The process begins with the
anticipatory socialisation which is the stage where an individual has a set of expectations
based on some knowledge acquired prior to organisational entry. The purpose of
anticipatory socialisation is to foster a smooth transition from the school situation to the
industry situation (Myers et al, 2011). In the college-sponsored internship, this phase can
be catered for by the schools through pre-internship orientation (Anane-Fenin, 2008).
Since interns are in different organisations, their socialisation experiences differed, the
amount of time used in orientation also differed from no orientation to a week orientation
period. Findings of the study indicate that organisations seem to have a hard time
socialising interns. Two (2) out of the four supervisors stated that a week’s orientation
was enough to prepare interns for organisational work.
63
Supervisor 3 notes:
The first thing we do when they come here is to introduce them to the employees
in the various departments during a general meeting. We inform employees why
interns are here and encourage them to help them achieve that purpose. For the
first one week, they meet in the conference room for an orientation period. After
which they are posted to their respective departments. From there we expect that
the interns will be well integrated into the company and work as expected of
them.6
On the contrary, Supervisor 2 indicated that after the one week of formal orientation,
interns spend some time at every department in the organisation before being posted to
their respective departments. This, he stated “enables the interns gain some knowledge
about all operations in the organisation and to socialise with other organisational
members”. This confirms that the organisation puts in some efforts to prepare interns for
the internship programme and for industry work after school. However, views from the
other three supervisors indicate that there are a lot more organisations in Ghana that do
not take students through a thorough orientation before formal internship begins. Again,
supervisor 1 stated: “this is a pressure house so there is no time to do orientation for
them. They walk in and they are to work”. Woo (2013) indicates that recruitment
orientation is not enough to see interns through their anticipatory socialisation.
Since interns do not stay as permanent employees after the programme, it becomes
somewhat unbeneficial to spend resources to socialise them (Nsoh, 2006). Dalby (2009)
notes that assimilating interns into an organisation is a potentially time-consuming
activity. The commonest method of socialisation as derived from the data gathered is
6
Supervisor 3, Tuesday, August 07, 2012, 12:53:31 PM
64
about a week’s orientation period. Each of the interns admitted that their respective
organisations took them through some form of orientation. How successful or not these
forms of orientations are, is determined by the interns ability to be successfully functional
as an organisational member (Wesson & Gogus, 2005). It appears that organisational
leaders have not yet come to terms with the importance of internship to their
organisations. They do not consider it necessary to go beyond their limits to train interns.
The process of socialisation and assimilation however is not solely the responsibility of
the organisations. The various institutions also have the task of preparing students’ minds
for internship and organisational work in a whole. As Jablin (2001) asserts, the first phase
of the assimilation process is anticipatory socialisation. In this phase the newcomer has a
set of beliefs and expectations which either speed up or impede the process of
assimilation (Jablin, 2001). This confirms that the mindset with which a student enters an
organisation becomes a major foundation for organisational socialisation and
assimilation. Therefore, there is the need for the various institutions to take students
through a pre-internship orientation. This is to reduce the level of uncertainty, which will
go a long way to speed up their assimilation process.
Only two interns attested to the fact that there was a pre-internship orientation organised
in school. They indicated that there was a semester’s course work on pre-internship
orientation. These interns seemed to have integrated themselves into organisational life
by the second week. On the issue of interns’ ideas being rejected by organisational
members, intern 6 stated, “Organisational work is like that, and will never change. One
just has to get used to it”. This statement confirms that the intern had really understood
65
the organisation’s culture. This can be explained with the assimilation theory which
indicates that after a period of socialisation newcomers make sense of organisational
culture and norms (Heiss & Carmack, 2012; Zorn & Gregory, 2005).
This confirms that the first phase of assimilation is as important as the last phase. Without
an appropriate anticipatory socialisation phase, it may be difficult for an intern to fully
get assimilated within the organisation throughout the internship period. From
respondents, it was gathered that they went through what Louis (1980) terms as ‘reality
shock’. This is the stage where without much information about organisational life,
newcomers experience surprise that may affect their work output. Respondents agreed
that they had very little information regarding their organisational work before entering
into the organisation. Intern 5 noted: “I had never even heard of this company. I chanced
upon it in my search for placement for internship”. Here is a statement made by intern 7:
“I wanted to leave, because what I knew was different from what they were expecting
from me”.
These responses give a clear indication that an intern’s lack of anticipatory socialisation
is likely to have an impact one’s learning experiences as an intern. Supervisor 4 stated,
“university students are usually not seen as green leaves. We expect them to have some
knowledge about what is done here before they come. But it is usually not so”. This
statement by the supervisor confirms the earlier statement made by the intern and shows
the relevance of anticipatory socialisation before organisational entry. Additionally, Ojha,
(2005) asserts that a newcomer’s experience in the early stages of internship is predetermined by his or her prior orientation experience.
66
The assimilation process is undertaken by both the organisation that puts structures in
place and newcomers who are to be successfully assimilated through the structures
provided by the organisation (Myers & McPhee, 2006). Hence, communication becomes
an essential tool in the co-ordination between newcomers and organisational leaders
(Gibson & Papa, 2000; Miller, 2006). After an internship period, an intern should have
acquired the skill of effective communication especially on the interpersonal level.
Four of the interns of whom two undertook independent internship and two through
college-sponsored internship did not go through any form of orientation in the
organisation. For those who undertook the independent internship it was without the
direct notice of their institutions, but the latter usually has consent from school. An
organisation’s socialisation process may help such students to equally go through a
successful assimilation. Provencal (2005) demonstrates that for internship programmes to
be successful there is the need for a well drawn orientation programme that can
adequately socialise and assimilate interns into industry.
5.2.2
Adaptive flexibility
Stress and anxiety are likely to be built up at the initial entry into an organisation. This is
because students are usually not familiar with the schedules of organisational work
(McManus & Feinstein, 2008). Also, Provencal (2005) indicates that the rate of
assimilation for tertiary institution graduates in industry is slow and needed to be boosted.
However, research has shown that how quickly a newcomer gets assimilated in an
organisation is often dependent on the amount of social time they spend with
organisational mentors (Cable & Parsons, 2001). Although the assimilation theory spells
67
out a process every newcomer is likely to go through to get assimilated, Kim (2002)
indicates that newcomers may have their own personal experiences which may affect the
manner in which they go through each of the phases of the assimilation process and at
which pace they go through it. It will rather seem somewhat unfair for organisational
leaders to assume that one orientation style will help all interns to get assimilated into the
organisation at the same time as Ojha (2002) observes.
The study revealed that the adaptive behaviour of interns differ and is likely to impede or
hasten interns’ ability to acquire the values of internship. One newcomer may spend a
month at the encounter stage of assimilation before moving to the metamorphosis stage.
Another might take a few weeks to understand the organisational norms and culture and
this could be due to the amount of information one has before entry (Heiss & Carmack,
2012). The following is a breakdown of how seven interns went through the encounter
stage to the metamorphosis stage.
Table 2:
Interns’ Adaptive Flexibility
Intern No.
Period Before Adaptability Stage
Intern 1
First week
Intern 6
Second week
Intern 7
Second week
Intern 4
Third week
Intern 2
Fourth week
Intern 3
Fourth week
Intern 5
Fourth week
68
Table 2 reflects the diversified nature of interns’ assimilation process. It thus, indicates
that more students appeared to be rather slow in the assimilation process. Factors such as
autonomous work conditions, interns’ readiness to adapt to the organisation’s culture,
communication and socialisation (Barnett, 2012) could account for this difference. A
textile student interning in an advertising firm said: “I can’t wait to finish with the
internship. Everything is different here. They expect more from me than I can offer; it
puts so much pressure on me”. Here, the intern did not seem prepared to adjust to the
pressure in the advertising company as indicated by one of the supervisors. Myers &
McPhee (2006) share in the view that whiles the organisation provides the enabling
environment for assimilation, the individual on the other hand is to take advantage of the
environment provided. While five interns seemed to put in some efforts in their
assimilation process, two appeared to have given up on organisational work.
When asked about impression of the first day at work intern 3 said he wanted to leave
after the first day of organisational work with reason that employees’ countenance
suggested that he did not belong there. He noted that for the first three weeks of the two
months internship period, he spent his time bringing ideas that were neither accepted nor
even taken and polished. He said “It was after a month that I felt my ideas were
considered useful. Until this time, I was very nervous”.
This experience is consistent with McManus and Feinstein’s (2008) conclusion that for
an intern to be fully assimilated into an organisation, he or she needs to feel competent
and in control of his or her space.
69
Supervisor 3 also attested to this fact and noted:
A supervisor should be able to identify slow learners and fast learners and treat
them differently. We have people who find it difficult to understand and even ask
questions on a thing that was told them repeatedly. They sometimes feel they will
never get conversant with the work. For such people, we read their gestures and
unexpectedly throw a question just to help keep them on their toes7
Ojha (2005) suggests that in situations like this the use of humour could be employed to
ease tension. However, “throwing a question unexpectedly” could rather discourage the
intern than keep them on their toes. Supervisor 4 was of the opinion that interns who do
not adjust to organisational work by the second month are likely to have a peculiar issue
and may need some kind of counselling from a mentor. He indicated:
In the first month, we expect that students will get adjusted to the different
conditions in the organisation. If they don’t by that time we try to find out if they
have any special problems... we’re in the third month but one of the interns here is
finding it very difficult to adjust to the work. She’s simply bad at almost
everything. Such a person may have a peculiar problem and may need a mentor to
help. By the second month, interns are expected to get used to the work and
produce the best. The third month is for wrapping up the internship
programme...well, the period is short though, but we try to help them learn as
much as they can once they are here8
The mention of mentor brings up Bloch’s (2011) idea that when supervisors tend to
mentor interns than just supervise, interns will be much comfortable to learn. Supervision
generally is to keep an eye on or keep under surveillance. This is seen in the manner in
which supervisors oversee interns’ lives in the organisation. Additionally, it has been
7
8
Supervisor 3, Tuesday, August 07, 2012, 12:53:31 PM
Supervisor 4, Monday, August 13, 2012, 12:32:12 PM
70
concluded that anticipatory socialisation has been a major loop-hole in the socialisation
process (Nsoh, 2006; Provencal, 2005; Woo, 2013). It is however likely that the students
are not slow to learn but the lack of anticipatory socialisation slows down their learning
process as Jablin (1982, 1987, 2001) indicates.
5.2.3
Learning Experiences
The primary purpose of internship is for students to gain a practical knowledge of the
theory learnt in school. Thus, undergoing internship comes with varying benefits that
may be helpful for the intern and the organisation. Learning experiences such as
teamwork, communication skills, quality of work, time management and taking initiative
are some of the skills that can be acquired during internship (Cord et al., 2010; Dalby,
2009; Renganathan, 2012; Wasonga & Murphy, 2006).
5.2.3.1 Teamwork
One of the dominant learning experiences observed was the skill of teamwork.
Teamwork is an organisational project performed by a group of two or more employees
who communicate in a way as to achieve a common goal (Gibson et al. 1997 as cited in
Bentum, 2013). The core purpose for which organisational heads include teamwork is
“for enhanced productivity, for creating enhanced co-operation in the organisation, for
flexibility and quicker decisions, for workforce diversity, for improved quality, and for
increased customer satisfaction” (Bentum, 2013. Pg 45). On the practice of teamwork,
intern 1 stated: “teamwork is primary to organisational work and that I have now”. The
tone of this statement suggests confidence. It denotes that one’s ability to work in a team
successfully builds confidence. Teamwork comes with organisational communication and
71
demands that team members develop a culture of group and interpersonal communication
(Renganathan, 2012). Concerning the importance of teamwork, supervisor 3 said:
The higher the number of people, the higher you’re likely to get diverse opinions
on one subject matter. That’s one advantage of having a large team with interns
inclusive. They have fresh, creative book knowledge which can be translated into
a big time project9
While three interns agreed that they had developed the skill of teamwork, two thought
that employees often intimidate them during team works. Two did not engage in
teamwork at all. The organisation had a culture of independent work. Here are some of
the statements made by interns to establish the fact that some interns did not acquire the
skill of teamwork:
Intern 2: “It is very difficult to work with people you know are more knowledgeable than
you. I have never felt comfortable working with the permanent staff”.
Intern 5: “Sometimes it’s like every idea you want to bring they already know it. I prefer
to be quiet and learn from them than make contributions”.
It confirms Sapp & Zhang’s (2009) findings that students lack confidence when they tend
to meet organisational members. Also, Cord et al. (2009) confirm this by noting that
interns are usually uncomfortable at the initial stages of teamwork, but after a while they
should gain confidence. Hence, according to the theory of assimilation and socialisation,
organisational members are the most responsible for the socialisation process of
newcomers (Jablin, 2001). Additionally, Myers and McPhee (2006) note that the success
of the assimilation process of newcomers depends largely on various organisational
9
Supervisor 3, Tuesday, August 07, 2012, 12:53:31 PM
72
members. However, Ojha (2005) states that a careful consideration of the assimilation
process by both the organisation and the newcomers can hasten the process. It
presupposes that apart from the role supervisors and co-workers are to play, interns also
need to put in some efforts in order to speed up their assimilation process. Students’
acquiring all the skills expected of them is not solely the responsibility of the organisation
but their respective institutions. Kelly, Noonan and Moonagle (2011) indicate that
students’ ability to perform well during internship largely depends on their course work
and pre-entry orientation. This statement supports the importance of teamwork as a skill
to be practiced in school even before internship. Although, Cord et al. (2010) found
teamwork to be a skill that can be acquired in industry better than school. Similarly,
Dalby (2009) indicate that when students are in teams with experienced employees,
learning is easier and faster.
5.2.3.2
Communication Skills
Communication skills was seen as a major ability to be attained by interns. This is not out
of place because communication is an integral part of an organisation’s life (Heiss &
Carmack, 2012; Johnikin, 2011; Nordin, Halib & Ghazali’s, 2011; Spaho, 2011). It is the
‘life-blood’ of any organisation (Drenth, Thierry & De Wolff, 1998). Communication
skills is one of the important skills students are expected to acquire during internship
programmes (Dahl, 2011; Darkwa & Kyei, 2008; Gault et al., 2010; Gyamfi, 2003; Wen,
2010). Hence, for an organisation to succeed in training students to be the workforce for a
nation there is the need to fortify communication structures. Communication here
includes group communication, interpersonal communication and writing skills. Also,
these skills are to be evaluated by supervisors at the end of the internship programme.
73
Two out of the three internship evaluation forms indicated communication skills as one
of the measurements of assessing students. This presupposes that it is the expectation of
faculty for students to develop in the area of communication by the end of an internship
period. Also, all the students identified that communication skills is needed for
organisational work and hence, the need to acquire it. However, it was apparent that some
students lack this skill. For example, as a response to the issue of asking questions in
times of difficulty, intern 3 said “Asking my supervisor a question is a big deal because
he will end up referring me to the next person, who will also refer me to the other
person”. This is also evident in a statement by intern 5 who noted “it is very difficult to
ask questions because they make me feel like I’m in the university for nothing”. These
assertions made by interns suggest that much of the organisations’ attention is geared
towards their permanent staff than the interns. This is consistent with previous works that
have proven that interns do not seem to do well in the area of communication skills (Sapp
& Zhang, 2009; Provencal, 2005). This view was supported by remarks from one of the
supervisors who said that the interns did not ask questions even when they were faced
with challenges. Communication skills that are to be acquired by interns may include
asking questions, making contributions and suggestions and how interns’ relate with
clients and other employees.
The following are statements of three interns when asked about the development of
communication skills in school:
Intern 2: we do more of practical work in school in order to prepare us for the
industry
Intern 3: even our examinations are practicals, just about three are written papers
74
Intern 7: internship is good because in school we just do practicals but here you
have to communicate with other staff and even clients
Comments from these three interns appear to indicate that interns who did solely practical
work in school lack some communication skills especially oral and written
communication. The study revealed that among the seven interns, three were in
institutions where much emphasis is laid on practical work than theory. While three
interns seemed to lack some communication skills, four interns appeared to be welldeveloped in it. This was established by their respective supervisors who noted that the
respective interns always asked questions when they needed help. Also, they got
assimilated into organisational work faster than the others.
When asked about the most challenging experience, an intern’s response was that of
acquiring professional skills. What is learnt in school is usually different from what
interns are faced with in the industry. This confirms McManus and Feinstein’s (2008)
findings that internship gives students the needed experience for effective output in the
world of work in addition to the academic knowledge acquired. Therefore, one of the
core purposes of internship is to bridge the gap between academic work and industry
work, and to give students a smooth transition from school to the job market (Degravel,
Hertz & Koutoumanis, 2012; Feldman, Folks & Turnle, 1998; Gault et al, 2010).
5.2.4
Time Management
Despite their challenging experiences, interns tend to have a high level of confidence in
the area of time management. For example, intern 7 stated: “using the biometric
attendance device...I was commended for being punctual at the end of last month”. This
75
was buttressed by responses from their supervisors. Also, this assertion was confirmed by
co-worker 2 who stated: “these interns want a good report from this company so they are
very punctual. They don’t even spend extra time at lunch even when there’s nothing to do
in the office”. Similarly, findings of Nsoh (2006) show that interns have good time
management skills. However, Provencal (2005) found that interns have poor time
management skills and that affects their punctuality and their ability to meet deadlines.
This apparent contradiction between Nsoh (2006) and Provencal’s (2005) findings in
terms of interns’ time management skills could be due to factors such as institutional
culture, organisational culture and the interns’ ability to adopt to organisational culture.
In the case of the current work, supervisors were involved in making sure that interns
work hard to be punctual. In all the organisations sampled, there are systems and checks
to make sure employees and interns for that matter go by set rules. Also, KammeyerMueller & Wanberg (2003) suggest that co-workers have some influence over interns.
Hence, through organisational socialisation, interns are influenced by co-workers to be
time conscious.
Of the seven interns, three established that their institution gave them a thorough
orientation before internship. Also, there is an anticipated internship seminar where
senior students shared what they learnt during internship. This bridges the gap between
the anticipatory socialisation and the encounter period as posited by the assimilation
theory. Pre-internship orientation also helped the university know which areas of
organisational work needed attention. Myers et al. (2011) argue that knowledge and skill
are not enough to enable an individual perform well in an organisation but also
information acquired prior to organisational entry. This raises the assumption that
76
institutions that do not take their students through pre-internship orientation may be
causing harm than good. This was confirmed by supervisor 1 who held the view that
“Truly speaking, experience is not obtained in the classroom”. It can be seen from the
above assertion that internship is of importance to students.
Rehling (2000) as cited in Sapp & Zhang (2009) argues that internship is an opportune
experience for students to learn the skill of taking initiative especially in the organisation.
Similar to Sapp & Zhang’s (2009) findings, supervisors rated interns’ ability to take
initiatives as low. For some interns, internship is not the best place to take initiatives
because it could affect the kind of appraisal given to the school. Intern 6 explained:
“Because of the mode of assessment, I get stuck with only what I am told”. Intern 3 also
opined: “I don’t venture to try anything new. I need my first class during graduation”.
From these views, it can be deduced that some interns get bothered about evaluation
more than the experience to be acquired. Despite the opinion of these interns, Sapp &
Zhang (2009) note that interns’ lack of initiative can impede their ability to learn
effectively from internship programmes. Apparently, since interns don’t get to see the
criteria for assessment for internship they could suspect that taking initiatives could
contribute to poor grading. This could be due to the fact that interns are not made to see
the criteria for evaluation. On the other hand, some interns indicated that their supervisors
gave them the chance to explore and take initiatives. To this, intern 1 noted: “They expect
me to use my head, they don’t tell me to look for this or that”. The supervisor in this
instance provided the enabling environment for the intern to take initiatives. This intern
according to Sapp & Zhang (2009) will maximize the internship experience and be a
better candidate for post-graduation employment. Intern 1 undertook the independent
77
type of internship, where the institution does not require appraisal of the intern’s
performance from the organisation. It can therefore be inferred that the intern was not
worried about the kind of report that the organisation will give to his institution, hence,
gave his best.
5.2.5
Informal Communication and Humour
Informal communication has been seen to be one of the most effective forms of
organisational communication (Nordin et al, 2011). One important aspect of informal
organisational communication that has been overlooked is humour (Dziegielewski,
Jacinto, Laudadio & Legg-Rodriguez, 2003, Heiss & Carmack, 2012). Dziegielewski et
al. (2003) indicate that humour is a lubricant especially in teams. It helps create rapport
with newcomers and to release tension and stress. Also, the bible indicates that humour
brings good health (Proverbs 17:22). However, despite its importance, organisational
members have not fully acknowledged the role it plays in organisational communication
(Lynch, 2005; Ojha, 2005).
In as much as supervisors seemed to be using communication in the socialisation process
of interns, the deliberate use of humour is minimal. For instance, supervisor 1 said:
“some of them like to have fun but that is not the purpose of internship. They are here to
learn and that’s just what they should do”. This statement carries a harsh tone and
presupposes that the supervisor does not seem to accept humour as an essential tool in
assimilation and learning. The stress “that’s just what they should do” from the
supervisor demonstrates how critical he thinks fun should be excluded from
organisational work. Also, some interns agreed that their supervisors were good at
organisational work but do not incorporate fun or humour into work. “My supervisor is
78
good at teaching me and correcting me but he doesn’t allow us to even chat” Intern 3
noted. Also intern 5 stated “One day he made a grammatical error while he was speaking
and we burst into laughter, he got so angry and asked us to get serious”. It appears that
interns know the importance of humorous communication. Ojha (2008) found the need to
incorporate humour in the assimilation process because it helps newcomers relax and
adjust to the new environment faster. Supervisors are not the only group of people to be
blamed for the lack of humour in the assimilation but interns also. Dziegielewski et al.
(2003) indicate that there are two dimensions to the use of humour; the creation and
appreciation of humour. In as much as the supervisor has to learn to create humour in
order to help in the assimilation process of interns, interns on the other hand must learn to
appreciate it. Dziegielewski et al. (2003) further point out that as much as humour is an
essential tool in organisational communication, it should be used in moderation to avoid
offences.
Humour is a major element that brings communication and socialisation together to affect
interns’ experiences in the organisation. The use of informal communication has been
known to be an effective way of achieving bottom-up communication (Mazzei, 2010;
Nordin et al., 2011). Ojha (2005) advises that one can use it deliberately to achieve a
particular purpose especially as an ice breaker. Therefore there should be a deliberate
attempt to use humour in organisational communication. As seen from the Employers’
Internship Toolkit (2005), one of the best ways of maximising an interns experience in
the organisation is for them to have fun. Two interns enjoyed the informal atmosphere in
their organisations and noted that they didn’t know organisational work could be that
79
much fun. Intern 1 noted: “He makes me feel comfortable...we crack jokes almost every
day especially when we go for lunch”.
Although, they did not anticipate it, it accrued for them benefits such as free flow of
communication and the development of oral communication skills. These interns were
able to ask questions about instructions given them more than once. This goes to confirm
what Lynch (2002) points out that humorous communication can be used to negotiate
what in the normal sense may be difficult.
5.3
RQ3: What are the Roles of Supervisors and Other Employees in
Socialising Interns?
5.3.1
Roles of supervisors in intern socialisation
Different organisational members contribute differently to the assimilation process of a
newcomer. A newcomer is influenced by an employee depending on the amount of time
the newcomer spends with that particular employee (Myers & McPhee, 2006). Myers and
McPhee (2006) further state that assimilation occurs when communication is done on the
interpersonal level. Myers et al. (2011) also indicate that the newcomer learns about and
develops interests in organisational behaviour depending on who the individual has the
closest contact with. Hence, the amount of time a supervisor spends with an intern is a
major determinant in influencing the assimilation process. Using the assimilation theory,
Long, Kohut & Picherit-Duthler (2005) framed the argument that supervisors are key
members in the assimilation process of newcomers because they are the first point of call
for interns. They further indicate that while acting as role models, supervisors interpret
communication messages from top management to those on the lower levels. They
80
believe that it will increase the time an intern spends with his/her supervisor. Hence, in
the current work, supervisors are considered key organisational members in the
assimilation of interns.
Consistent with the findings of Long et al. (2005), the current study considers supervisors
as key agents for interns’ socialisation. All Four supervisors identified with this assertion.
Concerning orientation, supervisor 4 noted:
When newcomers come in, not only interns but even staff who have never worked
before, they have to go through orientation. And the orientation is in two batches.
The first one is to talk to you, give you some kind of lectures as to what each
department does. And then the second one is for you to go round the department
for each of the department heads to also talk to you so that is the kind of
orientation supervisors do for interns. So you first of all know what and what we
do, the second one is to go to the department to see them physically.10
The supervisor believed that supervisors have a major role to play in interns’ socialisation
especially in the beginning days of their stay in the organisation. The supervisor first of
all establishes a relationship with the intern before they get to know co-workers and even
other interns in the organisation, the. Supervisor 3 agreed with this assertion and noted: “I
took the interns round the company to make sure they knew exactly what is done here
and then gave them the company’s code of conduct to read”.
Although three supervisors noted that they took their students through orientation and
therefore played a major role in their socialisation process, one supervisor and three
interns said otherwise. To this supervisor 1 noted: “this is a pressure house so there is no
10
Supervisor 4, Monday, August 13, 2012, 12:32:12 PM
81
time to do orientation for them. They walk in and they are to work”. Supervisor 1 handed
the intern over to one of the co-workers who worked closely with the intern. Intern 5
stated: “I often work with one of the staff here. I go out with him when we have to meet
clients. He is the one who usually guides me in my work”. Also, intern 2 said: “No, there
was no orientation as such. We were just introduced to the staff present and we started
work”. If a lot of the communication done by supervisors which makes them key
socialisation agents is orientation then it appears that their role is not being fully
accomplished. Hence, although some supervisors and interns stated that supervisors were
key agents of socialisation, results of the current study lend credence to findings of
Bukaliya (2012) who points out that supervisors are usually too busy to offer useful
direction to interns but show up once to inspect jobs being done.
An intern expressed concern about her supervisor who doesn’t like competition. She
noted that because of that she has to lower her standards and not do anything better than
what the supervisor will do. The encounter phase of the assimilation process best explains
the experience of interns’ whose supervisors do not allow them to make inputs. At this
stage, the newcomer makes sense of his/her initial experiences and through that
understand organizational culture and their roles and functions within it. (Jablin, 2001).
This is a crucial stage because it is at this stage that the individual learns to fit him/herself
into the organisational structure (Heiss & Carmack, 2012). Whether an intern will feel
accepted or not into an organisation depends on this phase. Also, the encounter phase
determines the rest of an intern’s experiences in an organisation. The major tool used in
assimilation and socialisation is communication (Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003).
Eisenberg, Goodall & Trethewey (2007) define communication as the “way language is
82
used to create different kinds of social structures, such as relationships, teams, and
networks”. This confirms the fact that effective socialisation which is achieved through
relationship cannot be achieved without effective communication.
5.3.2
Roles of co-workers in intern socialisation
Co-workers play an important role in the assimilation and socialisation process of interns.
Although, supervisors are the first point of call for interns, interns end up spending more
time with other employees than supervisors. The assimilation theory as propounded by
Jablin helps to determine how strong or otherwise an organisational member’s influence
in the assimilation process of newcomers is (Jablin, 2001). According to the theory, the
organisational member with whom a newcomer has the most interaction becomes a key
agent of socialisation and assimilation. Baker (2002) notes that one of the basic functions
of organisational communication is to socialise organisational members for effective
work output.
Connecting communication and socialisation, co-worker 1 noted: “We usually work
together with interns. If they’re bothered by anything, they put in their question and we
clarify them”. His assertion was affirmed by intern 5 who stated: “I often work with one
of the staff here. I go out with him when we have to meet clients. He is the one who
usually guides me in my work”. This assertion was maintained by all co-workers in the
various organisations. However, one co-worker stated that sometimes the interns do not
ask questions even when they have challenges. This confirms results of Sapp & Zhang’s
(2009) study which shows that interns tend to lack in the area of oral communication
skills. In their study supervisors rated interns’ oral communication skills the lowest, with
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reason that interns show less confidence in applying specific communication skills leant
in school.
5.4
Criteria for Assessment: Internship Evaluation Form
The internship evaluation form is one of the major instruments used in assessing students
at the end of an internship programme (Williams, 2009; Sapp & Zhang, 2009). A lot of
higher educational institutions in Ghana that undertake the college-sponsored internship
provide organisations with internship evaluation forms (Nsoh, 2006; Provencal, 2005).
This is used to appraise students on their capabilities and readiness for the job market at
the end of the internship programme.
Documents analysed are internship evaluation forms from three universities; KNUST,
UEW and AUCC (See appendix B). They were taken from the various faculty heads for
the purpose of this study. These forms are the current updated ones that were used by the
various universities as of December, 2012. The documents were prepared to assess
specifically students’ readiness for work during internship period. Albeit, they are usually
given to supervisors in organisations where their students have their internship.
According to Wen (2010) the purpose of evaluation is to assess interns on their “job
performance and future career development”. Per interviews conducted, supervisors
affirmed that the evaluation form is filled based on interns’ performance. Evaluation
helps the faculty to know which areas in the students’ academics need the most attention.
The documents have similar features and bring the assumption that the various faculties
are looking out for similar qualities in students after their internship programme. All
evaluation forms sampled have the name of the institution at the top. Followed by the
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subtitle, this describes the kind of document. On each of the evaluation forms, a section is
reserved for the name of the student, organisation and period of attachment. The rest of
the information which is the criteria for assessment is appropriated for the supervisor and
the faculty to fill. The internship evaluation form was not made for any particular
organisation or for some specific interns regarding their weaknesses and strengths. They
were designed for any organisation a student may find him/herself (See appendix B).
The four main skills that ran through all evaluation forms are time management,
professional skills, teamwork and communication skills. These characteristics are the
criteria for assessing interns which also gives industry insiders a better understanding of
the expectation of the institutions. This proves that higher educational institutions in
Ghana are looking out for these common traits in students after their internship period.
The difference in the evaluation forms was the inclusion of different work ethics and
qualities in each of the forms which did not appear in the others.
In search for a national document on internship, the researcher contacted the National
Accreditation Board. This is a statutory body responsible for making sure that tertiary
institutions offer their students the best of training for national development by inspecting
their facilities and studying their programmes of study. During the interview, the
respondent stated that there is no national document on internship. However, the body
presents academic standards needed for training students to the institutions. The
institutions on the other hand, translate those standards in ways that will best suit their
students. Internship, she said is one of the ways some institutions have adopted to train
their students. Considering the enormous benefits of internship to students, industries and
85
institutions, there should be a governing body to regulate internship activities. The
representative from the NAB further noted that the board expects faculty members to
couch study programmes that would assist students attain the needed standards. For
instance, the respondent stated that the one standard that internship is believed to be
covering up for is for students to become an efficient workforce for the development of
the country.
Considering the criteria for assessing student interns, it appears that faculty members
expect students to acquire these skills by the end of the internship period. While
evaluation forms have been seen as an effective tool for assessing interns, it appears it
does not measure a number of the targeted areas for organisational work. Supervisors
agreed that all four assessment criteria were relevant but were not enough skills needed
for organisational work. This is supported by supervisor 2’s remark: “Most students come
with sealed assessment forms. These are filled, stamped, resealed, and posted back to the
intern’s school”. This raises the assumption that students are not given the chance to
know what constitutes the assessment. It implies therefore that once interns are not privy
to that information they will not know which areas may need improvement. Also, during
an interview with a supervisor, he explained that this mode of assessment is usually not
the best for interns. This is because interns may not acquire the needed skills after the
internship programme since they do not know which areas they are required to focus on
(Coberly & Goldenhar, 2007). Thus, Bloch (2011) concludes that interns across the
various fields of study are faced with professionalization issues because of the continuing
lack of awareness of the needed set of skills for industry work.
86
Findings of Wen’s (2010) study show that supervisors are not the only group of people to
do evaluation, it is two-way. While the mentor evaluates interns’ performance, interns on
the other hand appraise mentors in order for future improvement in the internship
programme. Additionally, Wen (2010) indicates that if mentors should discuss the criteria
for assessment with interns the internship programme becomes a win-win-win affair. This
helps them to know what is expected of them, gaining the exact skills that are needed for
organisational work.
5.5
Other Findings and Observations
5.5.1
Organisational Members’ Perception of Internship
This theme arose during the interview with supervisors and interns who participated in
the study. Interns speculated that the value placed on internship varied from one
organisational member to the other. It was observed that perception of the internship
programme depended on the importance one perceived to be derived out of it. In effect,
the importance employees attached to internship determined the amount of assistance
they give to interns. A scenario that was described by intern 5 establishes this point: “a
client came to the office and all the staff were busy. I wanted to talk to the client and
apply what I had seen the other staff do, but I was asked not to. One of the workers told
me he doesn’t want the company to lose a client because of me so I should just sit quietly
and learn”.
Similarly, intern 1 described an occasion where two employees had a contention because
of a duty assigned. One said that an intern should not be exposed to everything that goes
on in the organisation. On the other hand, the other employee was of the view that the
learning process must inculcate every aspect of organisational work. Intern 1 was
87
however of the opinion that he should be allowed to learn everything there is to learn in
the organisation.
According to the Employers’ Internship Toolkit (2005), for an internship process to be
successful, organisational members especially supervisors must undergo some kind of
orientation so as to be on common grounds with interns. By so doing, employees will
have a similar perception about internship and will together lend a hand to interns in their
assimilation and learning processes.
5.5.2
Organisational Culture and Interns’ Motivation
Organisational culture has been seen as one of the main aspects of an organisation that
affects newcomer’s socialisation. In order for an individual to become part of an
organisation, he/she has to be part of its culture (Stoner, Freeman & Gilbert, 1995 as cited
in Bentum, 2013). Hence, for interns to get assimilated into an organisation, they need to
understand the organisation’s culture. This implies that a company’s culture should be
friendly for an intern to understand, be part of it and ascertain all the learning experiences
there are to acquire. In a study conducted by Renganathan et al (2012) on students'
perception of internship programme, findings showed that learning experience is
important because when students understand organisational culture they work to achieve
organisational goals. On the other hand, their lack of understanding of an organisation’s
culture can impede their assimilation process. Jablin (2001) explains that assimilation
comes with the newcomer’s ability to understand organisational structure and create a
niche for oneself. Hence, the culture of the organisation should be structured in a manner
that will be friendly to newcomers and help in their assimilation process.
88
This study revealed that the organisational culture affect interns’ learning experiences
and assimilation. For instance, supervisor 1 indicated: “If an intern comes to meet
workers who have passion for the work they do, they are likely to learn to get passionate
about the work”. Its implication is that, that particular company has a culture of
passionate hard work and with an understanding of that value interns tend to become
passionate about work and hence, learn. Also supervisor 4 noted: “when supervisors
easily get satisfied with interns’ work output, there is the likelihood that the interns will
lack a lot of skills”. From the two scenarios, it can be seen that the various companies’
culture affected the learning experiences and assimilation process of interns. Similar to
Barnett (2012) and Sleap & Reed’s (2006) findings, the current study discovered that
interns who were doing internship for the first time did not anticipate that organisational
culture will be largely different from the school cultures. To this intern 5 stated: “on
campus we leave for our hostels when time is up for lectures to close but here, they
expect us to stay until the job is done”. Additionally, it can be seen that organisational
culture is one of the factors that can influence interns’ experiences in industry. Based on
D’abate, Youndt & Wenzel’s (2009) findings, they advice that host organizations make it
a point to provide for interns the enabling environment for interns to learn as much as
they can learn.
A number of authors have given suggestions as to how internship programme can be a
fruitful exercise for students, organisations and institutions that engage in it (Sapp &
Zhang, 2009; Bloch, 2011, Feldman et al, 1998; Rehling, 2000; McManus & Feinstein,
2008). In spite of the efforts organisations and institutions have put in internship
programmes, Gyamfi (2003) points out that, proper measures and guidelines have not
89
been put in place to ensure that internship programmes serve the intended purpose. He
indicates that it appears there is a lack of proper supervision and coordination of the
implementation of internship programme. Thus, respondents gave suggestions as to how
internship can be made a win-win-win programme.
5.6
Measures that can be adopted to improve the productivity of internship
5.6.1 Supervision
Internship programme has been proven to be of immense help to students, organisation
and institutions (Sapp & Zhang, 2009; Rothman & Sisman, 2010; Provencal, 2005; Nsoh,
2006), thus, when orientation is not considered and addressed properly, it could impede
the complete success of the internship. Findings of Provencal’s (2005) study prove that
institutions have not put in much effort in training their students for work. He indicates
that the teaching syllabus which is to be reviewed based on interns’ performance is not
reviewed.
Data from supervisors and interns provide concrete evidence that orientation is not
considered as an important element of interns’ socialisation process. Intern 1 notes:
“They did stuff but I didn’t do anything. They gave me a computer and I was just
browsing so sometimes they would just let me look for information on the net for them.
Okay so maybe that’s what I did”.
In their extensive literature, D’abate et al. (2009) indicated that supervision is directly
linked to interns’ satisfaction, which in turn boosts their motivation for work. They
further recommend that organisations provide supportive supervisors for interns. In
consonance with their work, supervisor 2 suggested that the institutions make available
supervisors who will continually receive feedback on interns’ progress in the
90
organization. Prior to this, he noted: “so far most of the schools have not officially asked
for performance. It’s more of verbal, ‘how are my kids doing?’ that is for the private
schools but for the government schools no one has called. Even the schools don’t know
where their students are”. In addition supervisor 1 indicated:
Because they are not really employed we cannot take them through appraisal.
Normally the length of time doesn’t warrant appraisal but what we normally do is
that after awhile in here we quiz them. Yeah, you try to find out if they’ve kind of
understood or captured some of the terms and stuff. So once in a while you call
them and ask them, ‘what does this mean?’, ‘can you explain this to me?’ and
others”.11
Feedback can be defined as “the amount of information employees are given about the
effectiveness of their work outcome” (D’abate, Youndt & Wenzel, 2009). This implies
feedback from the organisations to the various institutions is part of supervision but was
largely absent in the internship programme. Apart from the evaluation form, very little
information is given to the schools on the performance of interns.
Also, it came to light that how supervisors perceive and hence treat interns may have an
influence on their assimilation process and experience as a whole. To this supervisor 1
said: “We treat them as permanent staff”. This he stated is to increase their sense of
belonging and hasten their assimilation process. Intern 1 stated: “I go for lunch with my
boss at the company canteen where lunch is served for free”. Also, intern 6 indicated:
“This is our last month here and our lecturers have not been here”. Despite the fact that
internship does not seem to be supervised by the institutions, there seems to be some
11
Supervisor 1, Thursday, July 26, 2012, 2:10:59 PM
91
form of monitoring and assessment with the college-sponsored internship (Employers’
Internship Toolkit, 2005).
5.6.2
Common Grounds
In spite of the challenges associated with internship, all respondents agreed that
internship is a fruitful exercise and should be well organised so as to gain all the benefits
associated with it. When there is common grounds for institutions, interns and
organisations, internship is likely to be a win-win-win programme.
Findings of Woo (2013) show that “the more prepared students were before taking an
internship, the more satisfying and successful experiences they had during and after
internship”. It implies that there should be some amount of preparation on the part of
students in order to make their encounter phase successful. It is further noted that during
the encounter stage, interns need to be active communicators to speed up their
assimilation process. Supervisors agreed that some interns did not ask questions even
when they were faced with challenges. It reinforces Woo’s (2013) observation quoted
above. Additionally, one of the co-workers suggested that it’s always advisable to have
more than one intern in an organisation since it helps newcomers identify and work
through the encounter period of assimilation.
Supervisor 4 stated, “They bring introductory letters addressed to ‘To whom it may
concern’; when it happens like that the organisation does not feel fully responsible for
taking them in at all cost”.
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On the part of the institutions and organisations, supervisor 2 suggested: “There should
be a platform where faculty heads and organisational heads will meet and discuss the way
forward for internship in Ghana”. In Ghana there is no body that regulates the activities
of organisations and institution with relation to internship. Also, according to the
respondent from the National Accreditation Board, there is no national document on
internship.
Again, supervisor 1 proposed that institutions should set up a committee that will do
active supervision on interns’ work in the industry. He said:
I think the basic recommendation I will put in is that they should have a
committee or body that will be going round. At least if within two or three weeks
someone comes up and finds out how the person is doing, performance- wise. It’s
an on-spot making sure the person is doing the right thing. They come to look for
places themselves, no one supervises them, no one comes to check on them.12
In his study, Nsoh (2006) noted that in 1999, the National Accreditation Board suggested
to tertiary institutions to do active follow-up on their students to see how learning is
going in the practical world.
Supervisor 3 again noted: “Faculty heads must find a way of knowing whether the
organisations where interns will be posted to are in good conditions to further train their
students”. There is the need for interns to be made aware of the purpose and objective of
internship in order for them to work towards achieving them (Bloch, 2011).
12
Supervisor 1, Thursday, July 26, 2012, 2:10:59 PM
93
The paid form of internship, according to the Chartered Institute of Personnel and
Development (2010) is a way of motivating interns to give off their best by learning more
and giving more to the host organisation. This puts interns and organisations on a
common ground and enables both parties to benefit from the programme. Supervisor 2
indicated, “We remit to the students, so there’s no way they can loiter about doing
nothing”.
It appears when internship becomes a requirement for graduation, students tend to lose
the essence of it. To this, supervisor 4 said:
For some schools, students complete their course work and need a two to threemonth attachment period in order to qualify them for graduation. When it happens
like that the purpose of internship changes from learning to graduation
qualification. Such students usually do not put in their best during attachment.13
The purpose of internship should be clearly spelt out to students so as to enable them
achieve its objectives. Bukaliya (2012) continues to state that some challenges that
interns face in the industry includes duration of internship not being sufficient for
students to assimilate all that is needed to be learnt.
5.7
Summary
This chapter presented the findings of the interviews conducted and interns’ evaluation
forms from three universities, namely: KNUST, UEW and AUCC. Themes that emerged
were analysed using exploratory thematic analysis as used by Bloch (2011).
13
Supervisor 4, Monday, August 13, 2012, 12:32:12 PM
94
Using the assimilation theory (Jablin, 1982, 1987, 2001), findings revealed that
assimilation was associated with the communication and the socialisation processes of an
organisation. Communication and socialisation can be seen through interaction with
bosses, colleagues and supervisors. These according to recommendations given by
interns, supervisors and co-workers create opportunities for learning.
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CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATION
6.0
Introduction
The importance of internship and the benefits stakeholders stand to get from it has led to
a number of research and recommendations. This study sought to investigate the
experiences of interns with regards to communication and socialisation processes.
Specifically, the study looked at communication as the focal point of interns’
socialisation and assimilation into organisational work. Conclusions are made based on
interviews conducted and internship evaluation forms sampled. Interns and supervisors
interviewed are from four advertising agencies – Multi-Pixel, Ddp Outdoor, STB
McCann and Origin8 Ghana – and one from the National Accreditation Board. Data were
analysed using the Exploratory Thematic analysis (Bloch, 2011) and was based on
Jablin’s Assimilation theory (1982, 1987, 2001).
6.1
Summary
The findings of the study reinforce the assimilation theory as propounded by Fred Jablin
(1982, 1987, 2001). The average intern went through the assimilation process considering
the amount of communication that occurred at every stage. It brought to light that
communication is a major tool in socialisation and assimilation. It however contradicts
the purpose of internship which is to provide a smooth transition from the institution to
the organisation (Munger, 2006; Wasserman, 2010).
The study found that different interns have different adaptive abilities, hence may not go
through the assimilation process the same way. This result is consistent with findings of
Kim (2002) that based on personal experiences newcomers in an organisation may differ
96
in the manner and pace in which they go through the assimilation process. Some interns
did not fully get assimilated because they did not learn to function as organisational
members (Myers and McPhee, 2006). Interns who are slow to adapt to organisational life
may learn very little due to the mode of socialisation in the organisation.
The study revealed that some of the dominant learning experiences of interns are
teamwork, communication skills, quality of work, time management and taking initiative.
While interns tend to excel in the area of time management, they do not appear to
perform in the aspect of communication skills, quality of work and taking initiatives
(Sapp & Zhang, 2009). This could be attributed to the organisational culture,
preparedness of interns and the lack of anticipatory socialisation.
Also, the study found that informal communication and the deliberate use of humour in
the organisation is essential for the assimilation of interns and for achieving some
organisational goals. In conformity to Ojha, (2005) and Lynch’s (2005) findings that
indicate that organisational members have not fully understood the use and importance of
informal communication and humour and hence, do not use it deliberately to assist
interns in their assimilation processes.
Additionally, a number of interns have the sole responsibility of seeking for internship
placement. Although Woo (2013) indicates that it helps interns to acquire information
before beginning with internship, information gained from the organisations was
minimal. When interns are left to look for placements by themselves they could get
organisations that do not have the machineries and equipment needed to adequately train
them.
97
Furthermore, result of the study demonstrates that in some organisations interns are used
as extra-duty staff. Interns fitted in as and when they were needed which made it difficult
for them to create a niche for themselves. Although four were given responsibilities
consistent with their expectation, yet three interns acted as extra-duty staff.
Also, the study illustrates that interns tend to communicate more with co-workers than
their supervisors, although Aarons (2006) indicates that the supervisor-supervisee
relationship is a potentially important point of influence in affecting interns’ attitudes. It
thus implies that co-workers have more influence on interns’ socialisation and
assimilation processes as noted by Myers & McPhee (2006) than by supervisors.
In addition, the study gives evidence that all students who were undertaking the schoolsponsored internship were appraised using internship evaluation form. While the
evaluation form appears to have been an effective tool for assessing interns over the
years, it does not measure a number of the targeted areas required for organisational
work. Students are not made to see their performance after the internship and hampers
improvement in the areas where interns did not perform.
Besides the findings that answered the research questions, the study also revealed that
different organisational members perceived internship differently. The importance
employees attached to internship determined the amount of assistance they gave to
interns. Also, the culture of the organisation influenced the perception of organisational
members in the assistance they give to interns. These factors affected the motivation of
interns to learn.
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In sum, the study found that communication and socialisation are interrelated and work
together to affect the assimilation process of interns and hence, their learning
experiences.
6.2
Conclusions
The study aimed at investigating the experiences of student interns in four advertising
agencies – MultiPixel limited, STB McCann, Origin8 Ghana and Ddp Outdoor – with
relation to communication and socialisation. The study employed qualitative research
approach by using interview and document analysis as the main instruments. In-depth
interview was used to sample data from supervisors, interns, co-workers and a
representative from the National Accreditation Board. Interns’ Evaluation form was used
to solicit for information concerning the requirements of the various institutions. The
sample size was sixteen (16) comprising seven (7) interns, four (4) supervisors, four (4)
co-workers and one (1) representative from the National Accreditation Board.
The study employed the purposive sampling technique to select respondents. With all
questions in line with the main objectives and research questions, an interview guide was
used to solicit for information from respondents. Interview results were read closely and
thematic analysis was done based on the objectives of the study. However, due to the indepth interview conducted there were other relevant results other than what the study
sought to find and they were all included in the analysis.
The result of this finding lends credence to the views that communication and
socialisation are the underlying basis for students to maximize their experiences as
interns. The following conclusions can be drawn from findings of this study:
99
While findings suggest that internship is a fruitful exercise, because of the lack of proper
planning and implementation its benefits have become one-sided and students happen to
be at the suffering end.
Also, Interns have different experiences depending on the dominant organisational
culture and adaptive flexibility. In effect, they do not go through the assimilation process
at the same pace.
Furthermore, although supervisors play an important role in the assimilation process of
interns, co-workers have a greater influence than supervisors. This is because they use
more of interpersonal communication than formal communication.
In conclusion, although the internship evaluation form helps institutions to know how
students faired during internship, its criteria for measurement do not give realistic
qualities for organisational work. On the other hand, communication skills is a major skill
that both organisations and institutions expect interns to acquire. Communication is an
inevitable tool in the socialisation and assimilation process of interns and when its use is
maximised it can make internship a win-win-win programme.
6.3
Recommendations
The internship programme is to a large extent, being carried out effectively although
there are challenges that need to be addressed. Results of this study is consistent with
Gyamfi’s (2003) findings that in Ghana, proper planning and guidelines have not been
put in place to ensure that internship achieve the intended purpose. It is therefore
recommended that pragmatic steps are taken to improve the current state of internship
programmes and make it a meaningful learning experience for students. With an efficient
100
internship programme, students should be encouraged to carry out as much internships as
they can throughout their course work, to aid their career choice after school.
The findings showed that communication had a direct relation with the socialisation and
assimilation of interns. The current study therefore proposes that organisational leaders
orient employees on internal communication and its effects on interns. As suggested by
the Employers’ Internship Toolkit (2005), it is important for both the learner and the
trainee to undergo some form of orientation and training before the internship programme
begins. Besides, Hinner (2002) suggests effective communication as an integral part of
tertiary education in order to aid them in their assimilation process during internship.
The study recommends a platform where company heads and institutional heads will
meet and address the subject of internship. By so doing, stakeholders will be enlightened
on the opportunities that will be gained and thereby encourage active participation.
Institutions and organisations will be on a common ground on a factor such as the criteria
for assessing interns.
To make an internship program more effective, organisational leaders should “clearly
outline the purpose of internship and administer projects that will help interns achieve the
needed skills (Bzullak et al., 2012; Narayanan et al., 2006). Also, Girdwood (1999) states
in the Tertiary Education Policy in Ghana that “there is a need to design academic
programmes and courses which would provide relevant and integrated education for
students”. As a result, School curriculum should be fashioned out to match industrial
requirements. This would reduce the level of surprise interns experience upon
organisational entry and serve as an anticipatory socialisation stage. It will also aid
101
interns to make a link between what is learnt in school and what happens on the job. This
will also help to address the issue of pre-internship placement. The study also
recommends a national policy document on internship which will undergo periodic
assessment and review of the internship programme to ensure maximum effectiveness.
Internship socialisation should be conducted to properly integrate student interns into the
world of work. As part of the socialisation process, interns should be made to be
independent in creativity to increase their competence to work as required.
A number of the literature reviewed indicates that internship period lasts for about eight
months (Bukayila, 2012; Gault, Leach & Duey, 2010; Renganath, Karim & Li, 2012;
Rothman & Sisman, 2010); on the other hand, the longest internship period in Ghana was
about three (3) months. Bukaliya (2012) states that some challenges that interns face in
the industry includes duration of internship not being sufficient for students to assimilate
all that is needed to be learnt.
Oliver (2010) as cited in Bukaliya, (2012) maintains that one of the reasons why interns
do not perform up to the expectations of their supervisors is because internship lasts for a
short time and interns have very little time to adjust to the new environment. Students do
not become functional employees because of the short length of time. It is therefore
suggested that the period of internship be extended to enable interns go through the
assimilation process to acquire organisational skills and thereby achieve the purpose of
internship.
102
Myers et al. (2011) conclude that an individual’s ability to perform as an organisational
member does not only depend on capabilities but also on prior preparation about the
profession. Based on their conclusion, it is proposed that there should be a deliberate
attempt on the part of students, organisations and institutions to obtain information prior
to students’ internship. For example, the University of Education, Winneba has an
internship model for undergraduate education students. The study proposes such a model
for all tertiary institutions in Ghana in order to give students equal opportunities during
internship. Also, the college-sponsored internship should be practiced more in Ghana in
order to give all students the opportunity to gain industry experience before post-graduate
employment.
In the teaching field, a mentor is the on-the-job trainee who guides an intern through the
internship period. The supervisor on the other hand, is from the institution, who takes
feedback from the mentor (Nsoh, 2006; Provencal, 2005). This can be inculcated in
industrial internship to give interns the needed assistance in the organisation.
Considering the enormous benefits of internship to students, industries and institutions,
there should be a governing body to regulate internship activities. For example, Woo
(2013) makes mention of a body that is responsible for manning internship programmes
from pre-placement to exit stage in the United States of America.
Although many members did not go through the metamorphosis stage because of the
limited time period of the internship but had to go through the exit stage, it appears there
is no national policy on internship programmes for tertiary students. The researcher
visited the National Accreditation Board and from an interview, it was noticed that there
103
are no national documented policies on internship, although there is a rough
documentation done in 1999 for polytechnics (Provencal, 2005). This could account for
the reasons why some organisations and tertiary institutions are not open to training
students though internship. The study thereby recommends a national document on the
implementation of internship.
6.4
Limitations
It was the intention of the researcher to observe student interns work over a period to
identify opportunities and challenges faced during each phase of the assimilation process.
Time constraints however, did not give room for this. The researcher visited four
different advertising agencies which made it difficult to observe all interns over a limited
time frame.
Also, the study was conducted during the second semester vacation which took most
organisations some time to admit interns. That notwithstanding, data gathered from
interviews brought out relevant issues.
The research could have covered more advertising agencies in Ghana, however, due to
time constraints and unavailability of interns, four companies were considered.
6.5
Further Research
It is worthy of note that the objectives of the study were adequately obtained from
respondents through interviews and from the evaluation forms sampled. The study
revealed that challenges facing the internship programme are basically due to the lack of
proper planning on the part of institutions and organisations. However, factors such as
demographic details of interns could affect their assimilation process. Although findings
104
could be generalised, there is the need to look at gender and how it impacts on interns’
experiences. The researcher suggests that future studies could focus on gender and
assimilation taking into consideration Fred Jablin’s assimilation theory. According to
research, there is a relation between gender and interns’ experiences. There is the
assumption that male supervisors have a different impact on female interns than male
supervisors on male interns. In the same vein, male interns who have female supervisors
may have different experiences. These remain the unanswered questions that can be
looked at in further studies.
Also, due to the difference in educational and industrial internship, the researcher
suggests a comparative study of educational internship and industrial internship over a
period of time. This is to help researchers and policy makers know which areas of
educational or industrial internship might need close attention.
6.6
Summary
This chapter summarises the findings of the study. It also came up with the conclusions
of the findings. Findings of the study revealed that communication is a major tool in
assimilation and can affect interns’ experiences in the industry. Elements of
communication such as humour and other forms of informal communication have not
been utilised effectively to aid the assimilation process of interns which in turn affects
their experiences.
In addition, the chapter gives suggestions as to how internship can be a win-win-win
exercise. Recommendations such as the improvement of elements of communication can
strengthen the missing gap between interns and their supervisors.
105
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APPENDIX A: Interview Guide
Interview Guide for investigating interns’ experiences in industry
1. Please briefly introduce yourself
2. Is this your first time of doing internship?
a. As a student intern working in the industry for the first time what has been
the most challenging experience?
3. How long have you been engaged in industrial attachment?
4. Are you here because of academic requirements?
5. Did you seek for placement yourself or your school did the placement?
a. Could you please describe the process of getting placement?
6. Did you know anything about this organisation before you came?
7. Did your knowledge about the organisation help you to integrate yourself into the
industry environment?
8. If you didn’t know anything about the organisation, how did you feel the first few
weeks you came here?
a. Did the organisation do anything to reduce the uncertainties?
9. Were you taken through an orientation period?
a. What changed after the orientation period?
10. Describe your duties in the organisation
11. How do other employees relate to you?
12. Tell me about supervision.
13. Does the style of supervision have an impact on your output?
14. Are you allowed to work according to your own speed?
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15. Were you provided with the levels of responsibility consistent with your ability?
16. Are you treated on the same level as the other employees?
17. How often do you communicate with your supervisor and other employees?
a. Does your lack or frequent communication affect your work in the
organisation?
18. Do you feel a part of this organisation?
19. At what point did you feel assimilated?
20. What have been your strengths and weaknesses?
21. Did the university prepare you adequately for working in the industry? If yes,
how? If no, give suggestions to improve it.
22. What are some of the opportunities you enjoy as a student intern?
23. Do you consider yourself to be sufficiently trained for the industry? State reasons
for your answers.
24. Do you consider yourself to have been better prepared to enter the world of work
after this experience?
25. Can you make recommendations to the universities and organizations that engage
in internship to make it a more fruitful exercise?
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Interview Guide for investigating Supervisors’ perception on interns’ experiences
1. Could you please introduce yourself?
2. Why do you take interns?
3. How many interns do you take at a time?
4. What are your expectations for the interns?
5. How do they feel when they first enter the organisation?
6. What are the perceived challenges of the interns?
7. What are some of the difficulties your office face with regards to socializing
interns?
8. At what point do they get assimilated?
9. Does the organisation have any policy document on internship?
10. What is the trend of their performance?
11. What is the mode of assessment?
12. What goes into the evaluation?
13. What in your opinion should be the role of the universities and polytechnics to
make internship a more fruitful one?
14. Can you make recommendations to the universities and organizations that engage
in internship to make it a more fruitful exercise?
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Interview Guide for investigating Co-workers’ perception on interns’ experiences
1. Could you please introduce yourself?
2. What are your expectations for interns?
3. How do you perceive their position in the organisation?
4. Have the interns here integrated themselves into the organisation?
5. How were your first encounters with them like?
6. How do you relate with interns?
7. Do your interactions with the interns influence their work output?
8. Do you make any conscious efforts to help them in their assimilation process?
9. What is the performance of the current interns?
10. Do you feel threatened when they perform above average?
11. In your opinion, is the internship programme well planned?
12. Can you make recommendations to the universities and organizations that
engage in internship to make it a more fruitful exercise?
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APPENDIX B: Evaluation Forms
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