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Chapter 23
Bacteria
Table of Contents
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Section 3 Bacteria and Humans
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Objectives
• Explain the phylogenetic relationships between the
domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
• Identify three habitats of archaea.
• Describe the common methods used to identify bacteria.
• Identify five groups of bacteria.
• Explain the importance of nitrogen-fixing bacteria for
many of Earth’s ecosystem.
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Two Major Domains: Archaea and Bacteria
• Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that do not
have a membrane-bound nucleus, and can live in
nearly every environment on Earth.
• Although tiny, prokaryotes differ greatly in their
genetic traits, their modes of nutrition, and their
habitats.
• Based on genetic differences, prokaryotes are
grouped in two domains: Domain Archaea and
Domain Bacteria.
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Three Domains of Living Organisms
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Domain Archaea
• One of the ways in which archaea differ is the make
up of their cell wall. Archaeal cells walls do not
contain peptidoglycan.
– Peptidoglycan is a protein-carbohydrate complex
found in bacterial cell walls that make their cells
walls rigid.
• Archaea differ in the types of lipids in their cell
membrane. Also, archaeal genes do contain introns.
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Domain Archaea, continued
• Archaeal Groups…
– …include methanogens, halophiles, and
thermoacidophiles.
• Methanogens convert hydrogen gas and
carbon dioxide into methane. They can be
found in the intestines of organisms such as
cattle and termites
– Responsible for “swamp gas” and methane
belched by cows
– Live only in anaerobic environment (no
oxygen).
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Domain Archaea, continued
• Archaeal Groups, continued
– Halophiles are “salt-loving” archaea that live in
very salty environments such as the Great Salt
Lake and the Dead Sea.
– Thermoacidophiles live in very hot, acidic
environments, such as the hot springs of
Yellowstone National Park. Some live at
temperatures up to 110°C (230°F) and at a pH of
less than 2.
• The base of food webs in many communities
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Domain Bacteria
• Bacteria occur in many shapes and sizes. Most
bacteria have one of three basic shapes: rod-shaped,
sphere-shaped, or spiral-shaped.
• Rod-shaped bacteria are called bacilli (singular,
bacillus). An example of bacilli is Escherichia coli.
• Sphere-shaped bacteria are called cocci (singular,
coccus). An example of cocci is Micrococcus luteus.
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Domain Bacteria, continued
• Spiral shaped bacteria are called spirilla (singular,
spirillum). An example of spirilla bacteria includes
Spirillum volutans.
• Cocci that form chains similar to a string of beads are
called streptococci.
• Cocci that form clusters similar to a bunch of grapes
are called staphylococci.
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Three Bacterial Cell Shapes
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Characteristics of Bacteria
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Section 1 Prokaryotes
Domain Bacteria, continued
• Gram Stain
– Most species of bacteria are classified into two
categories based on the structure of their cell walls as
determined by a technique called the Gram stain.
– Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of
peptidoglycan in their cell wall, and they appear purple
under a microscope after the Gram-staining procedure.
– Gram-negative bacteria have a thin layer of
peptidoglycan in their cell wall, and they appear reddishpink under a microscope after the Gram-staining
procedure.
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Gram Staining
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Gram Stain
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Important Bacterial Groups
• Bacteria are also classified by their biochemical properties
and evolutionary relationships.
• Proteobacteria
– Proteobacteria are one of the largest and most diverse
groups of bacteria, and contain several subgroups that
are extremely diverse.
– Members of this group include bacteria of the genus
Rhizobium, the genus Agrobacterium, and the
bacterium Escherichia coli.
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Section 1 Prokaryotes
Important Bacterial Groups, continued
• Gram-Positive Bacteria
– Not all of the bacteria in this group are Gram-positive.
Biologists place a few species of Gram-negative
bacteria in this group because these species are
genetically similar to Gram-positive bacteria.
– Members of this group include the streptococcal
species, Clostridium botulinum, Bacillus anthracis, and
members of the genus Mycobacteria.
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Section 1 Prokaryotes
Important Bacterial Groups, continued
• Gram-Positive Bacteria, continued
– Actinomycetes are Gram-positive bacteria, some
species of which produce antibiotics.
• Antibiotics are chemicals that inhibit the
growth of or kill other microorganisms.
Streptomycin and tetracycline are examples of
antibiotics that are used medicinally.
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Chapter 23
Section 1 Prokaryotes
Important Bacterial Groups, continued
• Cyanobacteria
– Cyanobacteria use photosynthesis to get energy
from sunlight, and make carbohydrates from
water and carbon dioxide. During this process,
they create oxygen as a waste product.
– Once called blue-green algae, cyanobacteria are
now known to be bacteria because they lack a
membrane-bound nucleus and chloroplasts.
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Section 1 Prokaryotes
Important Bacterial Groups, continued
• Spirochetes
– Spirochetes are Gram-negative, spiral-shaped
bacteria that move by means of a corkscrew-like
rotation. Some are aerobic.
– Spirochetes can live freely or as pathogens.
Pathogenic spirochetes include Treponema
pallidum, the causative agent of syphilis, and
Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme
disease.
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Section 1 Prokaryotes
Important Bacterial Groups, continued
• Chlamydia
– Gram-negative coccoid pathogens of the group
Chlamydia live only inside animal cells. The cell
walls of chlamydia do not have peptidoglycan.
Chlamydia trachomatis causes the sexually
transmitted infection called chlamydia.
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Chapter 23
Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Objectives
• Describe the internal and external structure of prokaryotic
cells.
• Identify the need for endospores.
• Compare four ways in which prokaryotes get energy and
carbon.
• Identify the different types of environments in which
prokaryotes can live.
• List three types of genetic recombination that prokaryotes
use.
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Chapter 23
Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Structure and Function
• The major structures of a prokaryotic cell include a
cell wall, a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes,
and sometimes a capsule, pili, endospores, and
flagella.
• Cell Wall
– Most prokaryotes have a cell wall. Bacterial cell
walls contain peptidoglycan. Archaeal cell walls do
not have peptidoglycan; instead, some contain
pseudomurein, a compound made of unusual
lipids and amino acids.
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Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Structure and Function, continued
• Cell Membrane and Cytoplasm
– Bacterial and archaeal cell membranes are lipid
bilayers that have proteins. However, the lipids
and proteins of archaeal cell walls differ from
those of bacterial cell walls.
– The cytoplasm is a semifluid solution that contains
ribosomes, DNA, small organic and inorganic
molecules, and ions.
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Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Structure and Function, continued
• DNA
– Prokaryotic DNA is a single closed loop of doublestranded DNA attached at one point to the cell
membrane.
– Along with a single main chromosome, some
prokaryotes have plasmids, which are small,
circular, self-replicating loops of double-stranded
DNA.
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Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Structure and Function, continued
• Capsules and Pili
– Many bacteria have an outer covering of
polysaccharides called a capsule that protects the
cell against drying, pathogens, or harsh
chemicals.
– Pili are short, hairlike protein structures on the
surface of some bacteria that help bacteria
connect to each other and to surfaces, such as
those of a host cell.
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Chapter 23
Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Bacterial Capsule
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Visual Concept
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Chapter 23
Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Pilus
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Visual Concept
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Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Structure and Function, continued
• Endospores
– Some Gram-positive bacteria can form a thickcoated, resistant structure called an endospore
when environmental conditions become harsh.
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Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Structure and Function, continued
• Prokaryotic Movement
– Many prokaryotes have long flagella that allow the
prokaryotes to move toward food sources or away
from danger.
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Chapter 23
Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Structural Characteristics of a Bacterial Cell
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Chapter 23
Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Parts of a Prokaryotic Cell
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Chapter 23
Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Nutrition and Metabolism
• Prokaryotes obtain nutrients either from the nonliving
environment or by utilizing the products or bodies of
living organisms.
– Heterotrophs obtain carbon from other
organisms.
– Autotrophs obtain their carbon from CO2.
– Chemotrophs get energy from chemicals in the
environment.
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Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Prokaryotic Habitats
• Different prokaryotic species live in different
environments.
• Temperature requirements range from 0°C to 110°C.
•
Most prokaryotic species grow best at a neutral pH.
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Section 2 Biology of Prokaryotes
Reproduction and Recombination
• Genetic recombination in bacteria can occur by the
following three ways:
– transformation (taking in DNA from the outside
environment)
– conjugation (exchanging DNA with other bacteria
via pili)
– transduction (transmission of bacterial DNA via
viruses).
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Chapter 23
Section 3 Bacteria and Humans
Objectives
• Describe the ways in which bacteria can cause disease in
humans.
• Explain how a bacterial population can develop resistance to
antibiotics.
• Identify reasons for recent increases in the numbers of certain
bacterial infectious diseases.
• Identify ways of preventing a foodborne illness at home.
• List four industrial uses of bacteria.
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Section 3 Bacteria and Humans
Bacteria and Health
• Human diseases may result from endotoxins or
exotoxins produced by bacteria or from the
destruction of body tissues.
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Section 3 Bacteria and Humans
Bacteria and Health, continued
• Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance
– A mutation in the DNA of a single bacterium can
confer resistance to an antibiotic.
– Cells with the mutant gene have a selective
advantage when the antibiotic is present.
– Mutant cells take over the population when the
normal cells die.
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Section 3 Bacteria and Humans
Bacteria and Health, continued
• Emerging Infectious Diseases Caused by
Bacteria
– The number of certain bacterial diseases has
increased because of the increase in the number
of antibiotic resistant bacteria, the movement of
people into previously untouched areas, and
global travel.
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Section 3 Bacteria and Humans
Bacteria and Health, continued
• Food Hygiene and Bacteria
– Foodborne illnesses can be avoided by selecting,
storing, cooking, and handling food properly.
– Frequent hand washing in hot, soapy water is also
very important.
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Chapter 23
Section 3 Bacteria and Humans
Important Bacterial Diseases
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Section 3 Bacteria and Humans
Bacteria in Industry
• Many species of bacteria are used to produce and
process different foods, to produce industrial
chemicals, to mine for minerals, to produce
insecticides, and to clean up chemical and oil spills.
• Biologists have learned to harness bacteria to recycle
compounds in a process called bioremediation,
which uses bacteria to break down pollutants.
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Chapter 23
Section 3 Bacteria and Humans
Bacteria and Food
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Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice
1. How do bacteria produce yogurt from milk?
A. by conjugation
B. by fermentation
C. by nitrogen fixation
D. by aerobic respiration
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Multiple Choice, continued
1. How do bacteria produce yogurt from milk?
A. by conjugation
B. by fermentation
C. by nitrogen fixation
D. by aerobic respiration
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Multiple Choice, continued
2. What are rod-shaped bacteria called?
F. cocci
G. bacilli
H. spirilla
J. halophiles
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Multiple Choice, continued
2. What are rod-shaped bacteria called?
F. cocci
G. bacilli
H. spirilla
J. halophiles
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Multiple Choice, continued
3. What are thermoacidophiles?
A. bacteria
B. archaea
C. spirochetes
D. cyanobacteria
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Multiple Choice, continued
3. What are thermoacidophiles?
A. bacteria
B. archaea
C. spirochetes
D. cyanobacteria
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Multiple Choice, continued
4. Genetic recombination in bacteria can occur during
which process?
F. conjugation
G. binary fission
H. heterocyst formation
J. endospore production
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Multiple Choice, continued
4. Genetic recombination in bacteria can occur during
which process?
F. conjugation
G. binary fission
H. heterocyst formation
J. endospore production
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Multiple Choice, continued
Use the table below to answer questions 5 - 6. The
table lists the response of a bacterium to several
antibiotics.
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Multiple Choice, continued
5. Which of the following antibiotics killed the bacteria
most effectively?
A. penicillin
B. bacitracin
C. tetracycline
D. streptomycin
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Multiple Choice, continued
5. Which of the following antibiotics killed the bacteria
most effectively?
A. penicillin
B. bacitracin
C. tetracycline
D. streptomycin
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Multiple Choice, continued
6. Which of the following antibiotics had no effect on the
bacterium?
F. ampicillin
G. tetracycline
H. streptomycin
J. cephalosporin
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Multiple Choice, continued
6. Which of the following antibiotics had no effect on the
bacterium?
F. ampicillin
G. tetracycline
H. streptomycin
J. cephalosporin
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Multiple Choice, continued
Complete the following analogy:
7. obligate aerobe : oxygen :: obligate anaerobe :
A. low pH
B. absence of oxygen
C. presence of methane
D. high salt concentration
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Multiple Choice, continued
Complete the following analogy:
7. obligate aerobe : oxygen :: obligate anaerobe :
A. low pH
B. absence of oxygen
C. presence of methane
D. high salt concentration
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Multiple Choice, continued
Use the image below to answer questions 8 - 9.
The table shows different shapes in bacteria.
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Multiple Choice, continued
8. What shape is represented by organism C?
F. coccus
G. bacillus
H. spirillum
J. filamentous
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Multiple Choice, continued
8. What shape is represented by organism C?
F. coccus
G. bacillus
H. spirillum
J. filamentous
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Multiple Choice, continued
9. You would expect the members of the bacterial
genus Bacillus to be what type of shape?
A. rod shaped
B. spiral shaped
C. square shaped
D. sphere shaped
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Multiple Choice, continued
9. You would expect the members of the bacterial
genus Bacillus to be what type of shape?
A. rod shaped
B. spiral shaped
C. square shaped
D. sphere shaped
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Short Response
The Gram stain is used to distinguish bacteria
based on a certain physiological difference
between the bacteria.
Describe the color of Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria when they are treated with the
Gram stain.
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Short Response, continued
The Gram stain is used to distinguish bacteria
based on a certain physiological difference
between the bacteria.
Describe the color of Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria when they are treated with the
Gram stain.
Answer: Gram-positive bacteria appear purple.
Gram-negative bacteria appear reddish-pink.
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Extended Response
Base your answers to parts A & B on the information below.
Species of the symbiotic bacterial genus Rhizobium live within
the root nodules of legumes, such as soybeans and
peanuts. Some farmers take advantage of the nitrogenfixing abilities of these species when they rotate their crops
every few years and grow legumes instead of their normal
food crops.
Part A Define nitrogen fixation.
Part B Explain the benefits of crop rotation on the soil.
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Extended Response, continued
Answer:
Part A Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of
nitrogen gas into a form of nitrogen (ammonia)
that plants can use.
Part B Crop rotation of legumes with nonlegume
crops would add nitrogen to the soil without
having to use artificial fertilizers.
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