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. Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . L3 /03 . The urban explosion and writing Karljürgen G. Feuerherm Wilfrid Laurier University 1 March 2013 . 1 / 56 . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Outline . 1. Greater Mesopotamia 2. The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods 3. Northern Mesopotamia 4. A parallel evolution 5. The development of writing 2 / 56 . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Greater Mesopotamia—definition Mesopotamia Greek mesos + potamoi → ‘between the rivers’ Euphrates in the west, Tigris in the east Greater Mesopotamia Includes some of the area to either side . 3 / 56 . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Greater Mesopotamia—map . . .Taurus range .Assyria .← Tigris .Euphrates → { .Babylonia . . } } . .Akkad . .Sumer 4 / 56 . . L3 /03 Greater Mesopotamia . . Greater Mesopotamia—map 2013-03-01 . . .Taurus range .Assyria .← Tigris .Euphrates → { .Babylonia . . } } Greater . .Akkad . .Sumer Mesopotamia—map . 1. The Tigris and Euphrates have their sources in the mountains of Anatolia, and flow south toward the Persian Gulf. 2. Consequently, they run quickly in the north, and with great force, cuing deep into the land. In the south, however, they flow sufficiently slowly to deposit their silt, with the result that their banks tend to be at a similar elevation to the plains. 3. In view of the climate and rainfall realities, dry-farming was practicable in the north from an early period, as we have seen, whereas in the south it was not and could not be. 4. Towards the end of the Ubaid period, surveyed sites were generally small (< 10ha) and fairly evenly distributed; large parts of the floodplain apparently had no permanent selements through there may have been nomadic herders and hunters. . 5. Things were about to change …. Necessity is the mother of invention. . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Uruk 4000–2900 Early/Middle Uruk 4000–3500 Late Uruk 3500–3200 Jemdet Naṣr 3200–2900 . 6 / 56 . . L3 /03 The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . . The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods 2013-03-01 Uruk 4000–2900 Early/Middle Uruk 4000–3500 Late Uruk 3500–3200 Jemdet Naṣr 3200–2900 . The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . 1. Uruk: Unfortunately, archaeological documentation for this period is relatively poor. Some data can be obtained from surface surveys, but problems arise in interpreting results. Sites occupied at a given period are identified by the poery fragments on the surface of the site, and the paern of selement reconstructed. However, there are problems: a) some sites are buried under alluvial silt, are therefore potentially unrepresented; b) where occupation was over a long period, early periods may be under-represented in terms of surface finds; c) for some sites, the later levels may be missing (erosion, reuse of materials, etc.). 2. Late Uruk: = Uruk IV. 3. Jemdet Naṣr: = Uruk III. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns . . . . . 8 / 56 . . L3 /03 The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . . Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns 2013-03-01 . . . . . Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns . 1. The distributions shown here are based on an archaeological surface survey conducted by Robert Adams. Keep the limitations as discussed above in mind! 2. E/M U. Note the density of population mainly in the north, as one would expect given the dry-farming history. The area north and east of Nippur was densely seled from the beginning of the 4th millennium. 3. The remains of a river meander near Nippur are still visible, suggesting a waterway of similar size to the current Euphrates. It appears that in this period, the Tigris and Euphrates actually joined farther upstream and then split into a variety of channels which coursed through the alluvial plain. . . . L3 /03 The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . . Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns 2013-03-01 . . . . . Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns . 1. Uruk was some 70ha at this time. In the north, there were two other large sites of ca. 50ha each and two of some 30ha. It is not clear whether this represents natural local population growth or an influx of immigrants from elsewhere. 2. L U. By Late Uruk, many northern sites were abandoned in favour of new selements farther south in the neighbourhood of Uruk, which itself more than doubled in area. This may have been occasioned by a change in river courses. 3. Whereas the total area of selement increased only slightly over the previous period, the distribution shied considerably, from 60% in the area of Nippur to 60% in the area of Uruk; in other words, there was a 20% shi in selement area from north to south, presumably with a corresponding shi in population. . 4. Uruk grew to ca. 100ha during this period, roughly twice the size of the next largest site. . . L3 /03 The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . . Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns 2013-03-01 . . . . . Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns . 1. J Nṣ. The trends of the Late Uruk period continued through this period and beyond. By the end of this period, the Uruk region (think ‘Waterloo Region’, GTA) had expanded to 850ha (more than double its size during the Late Uruk period) with Uruk itself occupying nearly half that area! 2. At the same time, we see a phenomenon of centralization: other large centres developed while the number of villages decreased. Note from the map the tendency of small sites to ‘line up’ (perhaps due to increased use of long canals) rather than follow a random paern. . 3. It has been estimated that previous to the Jemdet Naṣr period, the area of agricultural land required to feed the population of Uruk was ca. 6km in radius; farmers may have walked an hour or so to the fields each day, as still happens in the Near East today. By this period, the radius was likely some 16km, and much of what was consumed in Uruk presumably car from elsewhere, perhaps via taxes and levies. . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Uruk today–overview . . . 12 / 56 . . L3 /03 The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . . Uruk today–overview 2013-03-01 . . . Uruk today–overview . 1. In the centre of the image, we see the ziggurat of Ur–Namma, which we will discuss later. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Uruk today–side view . . . 14 / 56 . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Uruk vase . . . 15 / 56 . . L3 /03 The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . . Uruk vase 2013-03-01 . . . Uruk vase . 1. This vase is one of a pair found in the temple treasury of Uruk III but may have been carved earlier. The whole vase shows a scene of offerings being presented to the goddess Inana, with the ruler and the goddess being depicted in the top register. 2. This is one of the items which was stolen during the raid of the Iraq museum. Although it was later returned, it was broken in the process. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Uruk site map . . . 17 / 56 . . L3 /03 The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . . Uruk site map 2013-03-01 . . . Uruk site map . 1. Excavations of early period Uruk (modern Warka, biblical Erech) took place in two main areas: the E–ana complex (‘House of Heaven’) and some 500m to the west in the area of the Temple of An (the sky/heaven god). . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . The E–ana district . . . 19 / 56 . . L3 /03 The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . . The E–ana district 2013-03-01 . . . The E–ana district . 1. The size, variety, and complexity of the architecture shows that the buildings were carefully designed and intended both for religious ceremonies and to impress the populace with the wealth and power of those who commissioned them. 2. E–. The earliest phase, known as the Limestone Temple, had stone foundations on a bed of mud, and measured 76m by 30m. Confirmation of its use as a temple is uncertain, but the tripartite structure, its intricate niching and buressing, and its location in a sacred area all suggest that it was. In later periods, more complex structures were used. . 3. At the west end of the area was a separate area now known as the Stone Cone Mosaic Temple. Surrounded by a wall with buresses on both sides, the temple was decorated with cone mosaics made of red, black, and white stone set in gypsum. . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Stone cones . . . 21 / 56 . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Stone cone mosaic columns . . . 22 / 56 . . L3 /03 The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . . Stone cone mosaic columns 2013-03-01 . . . Stone cone mosaic columns . 1. The monumental structures which emerge at this time point to a change from territorially organized society to one based on ties of kinship, divided by class and ruled by religious, military, and political elites. 2. This in turn meant the emergence of professional cra workers and increased long-distance trade. Poery and other objects of southern Mesopotamian styles have been found far away; and some selements in southern Iran (i.e. across the Zagros range) and northern Mesopotamia shared so many cultural traits that they probably had direct contact with southern Mesopotamia. 3. The erection of public buildings affirms the existence of a society with a central authority whose resources allowed for such work to be carried out. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Tell Uqair leopard . . . 24 / 56 . . L3 /03 The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . . Tell Uqair leopard 2013-03-01 . . . Tell Uqair leopard . 1. At Tell Uqair, located ca. 80km south of modern Baghdad (so north of Nippur), a Late Uruk temple stood on a high platform approached by steps whose edge was also decorated with mosaic cones. The upper stage was covered with bitumen (similar to tar) and the temple walls were built upon this. Only half of the temple has been preserved, but it was clearly on a tripartite plan with an altar and offering table. The walls were covered with paintings, preserved because the building was filled up as a platform for later construction. 2. Here is a painting of a leopard of a type still found in Iran today, from that temple. Remember the leopard reliefs at Çatal Höyük? . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Bevel-rimmed bowls . . . 26 / 56 . . L3 /03 The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods . . Bevel-rimmed bowls 2013-03-01 . . . Bevel-rimmed bowls . 1. Bevel-rimmed bowls such as those shown here were mass-produced from coarse straw-tempered clay by being pressed into a mould (as opposed to turned on a wheel). 2. In the Late Uruk and Jemdet Naṣr periods they occurred in great quantity in southern Mesopotamia and the region of Susa (Iran). Eventually, they spread across the Fertile Crescent (excluding the Levant), showing the influence of southern Mesopotamian culture. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Tepe Gawra . . . 28 / 56 . . L3 /03 Northern Mesopotamia . . Tepe Gawra 2013-03-01 . . . Tepe Gawra . 1. Following the Ubaid period, northern Mesopotamia developed its own local culture, known as Gawra culture, in light of Tepe Gawra, a site east of modern Mosul in northern Iraq. 2. In later levels, there were numerous graves including 80 mud brick tombs. Some contained beads; several tombs had thousands of them, with one having more than 25,000! These were made of various materials, including turquoise, jadeite, carnelian, lapis lazuli and diorite, white faïence, gold, electrum, shell, and ivory. The closest source of lapis lazuli was northern Afghanistan, more than 2,000km away! 3. Seen here in the middle of the photo is what remains of the so-called Round House, believed to have been the fortified residence of the chief. It contained stores of grain and pear-shaped mace heads. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Tepe Gawra site map . . . 30 / 56 . . L3 /03 Northern Mesopotamia . . Tepe Gawra site map 2013-03-01 . . . Tepe Gawra site map . 1. Here we see a site map of Tepe Gawra. Note how the Round House is centrally located. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Round House reconstruction . . . 32 / 56 . . L3 /03 Northern Mesopotamia . . Round House reconstruction 2013-03-01 . . . Round House reconstruction . 1. Here is one artist’s reconstruction of the Round House in three dimensions. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Tell Brak idols—eye dolls? . . . 34 / 56 . . L3 /03 Northern Mesopotamia . . Tell Brak idols—eye dolls? 2013-03-01 . . . Tell Brak idols—eye dolls? . 1. Another important site from this period, Tell Brak in the upper Habur region (northeastern tip of Syria) features an interesting temple known as the Eye Temple for obvious reasons. 2. Is this evidence of alien invasion or of mutants? . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Overview of economic evolution Situation increased production ⇒ increased wealth ⇒ increased population ⇒ class specialization ⇒ social stratification How to keep track of it all? . 36 / 56 . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Uruk cylinder seal . . . 37 / 56 . . L3 /03 A parallel evolution . . Uruk cylinder seal 2013-03-01 . . . Uruk cylinder seal . 1. Seals had already been in use since some time to control contents and access to commodities. 2. Here is an Uruk period seal from the Louvre; jasper, showing monstrous lions and lion-headed eagles, themes which continue through Mesopotamian history. 3. However, such seals eventually proved inadequate to the task. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Partial solution: tokens . . . 39 / 56 . . L3 /03 A parallel evolution . . Partial solution: tokens 2013-03-01 . . . Partial solution: tokens . 1. Seen here are tokens; in this case, lile clay objects of various shapes and sizes, with in some cases some kind of markings to differentiate them. 2. Each type of token was understood to represent a type and/or count of a given commodity. By means of tokens, records could be kept concerning various commodities in a manner similar to the representation of numbers on an abacus. 3. Tokens were not an invention of the Uruk period: recent research has shown that tokens came in to use in the 9th millennium, however they did become more prolific as the economy grew and became more complex. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Tokens from Susa (Iran) . . . 41 / 56 . . L3 /03 A parallel evolution . . Tokens from Susa (Iran) 2013-03-01 . . . Tokens from Susa (Iran) . 1. In the le column, we see examples of the five most common token shapes: sphere, hemisphere, disc, cone, tetrahedron. 2. Some tokens in last two columns are similar in shape to certain characters of the later Sumerian script. Note in particular the ‘circle and plus sign’ at the boom of the next to last column. 3. Now: how do we control these many tokens? Well…. How do we control important things now? Put them into a safe! . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Enter the bulla . . . 43 / 56 . . L3 /03 A parallel evolution . . Enter the bulla 2013-03-01 . . . Enter the bulla . 1. Illustrated here is a hollow clay egg shape known as a bulla, also from Susa. 2. Inside were found a large cone, three small cones, and three discs. These were found to match the indentations on the outside, i.e. they were impressed into the surface of the bulla before being enclosed in it, presumably as a mnemonic of what was inside. 3. Evolution: a) tokens; b) bulla to store tokens; c) impression of tokens on the outside to avoid having to open the bulla every time a count was required. Presumably by this time, breaking the bulla open was reserved for those occasions when one was challenged. Note that in most cases, however, bulla indentations were made by stylus (a reed writing instrument) or thumb rather than using the tokens themselves. . 4. About 70 such bullae are known so far, dating as far back as 3000 . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . The token theory of writing A few notable facts concerning tokens and bullae tokens come in many shapes and sizes in a number of cases, shapes resemble later Sumerian characters tokens are enclosed in bullae, later tablets in cases Token theory of writing Denise Schmandt–Besserat . 45 / 56 . . L3 /03 A parallel evolution . . The token theory of writing 2013-03-01 A few notable facts concerning tokens and bullae tokens come in many shapes and sizes in a number of cases, shapes resemble later Sumerian characters tokens are enclosed in bullae, later tablets in cases Token theory of writing Denise Schmandt–Besserat . The token theory of writing . 1. shapes and sizes: presumably these represent qualities—i.e. various commodities—and quantities 2. resemble: suggesting a possible genetic relationship between the two 3. cases: clay envelopes placed around early tablets, usually with a brief résumé of the contents of the tablet inscribed on them; another apparent parallel 4. Schmandt–Besserat: inspired by these parallels, D. S–B has proposed that Sumerian writing evolved more or less directly from tokens and bullae. This has been accepted by many scholars. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Comparison of token types and later Sumerian characters . . . 47 / 56 . . L3 /03 A parallel evolution . . Comparison of token types and later Sumerian characters 2013-03-01 . . . . Comparison of token types and later Sumerian characters 1. Here one can see a representative set of tokens thought to correspond to Sumerian script counterparts. The theory seems to work! 2. But…there are a few problems…. . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Inscribed bulla . . . 49 / 56 . . L3 /03 A parallel evolution . . Inscribed bulla 2013-03-01 . . . Inscribed bulla . 1. This inscribed bulla from a second millennium palace at Nuzi (in northern Mesopotamia) seems to confirm the theory: the cuneiform inscription discusses 48 animals, and there are 48 tokens inside. 2. Note however that this item has full-fledged cuneiform, leading to at least two questions: 2.1 can this evidence be adduced for the previous millennia, when clear evidence of writing emerges? 2.2 if writing is an evolution from tokens, why do they continue to co-exist once writing comes into full swing? does this not suggest divergent purposes to some extent at least? . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Other issues Token classification Variety of materials Use extends beyond the life of the writing system Unique token types Uruk evidence Sheep Non-tokens . 51 / 56 . . L3 /03 A parallel evolution . . Other issues Token classification Variety of materials 2013-03-01 Use extends beyond the life of the writing system . Unique token types Uruk evidence Sheep Non-tokens . Other issues . 1. classification: there are at least 16 types of tokens with 492 subtypes—rather complex 2. materials: 14% of objects thought to be tokens are not made of clay (e.g. stone [tombs], bitumen) 3. beyond: the Mesopotamian script was in use for over three millennia; however, tokens, which came into use no later than the ninth millennium continue to be used through the Seleucid/Parthian periods, i.e. beyond the conquest of Alexander 4. Unique: 58% of complex tokens are unique; 15% occur only twice, and only 18% occur more than four times 5. Uruk: 812 tokens spread over 3000 years and 237 subtypes; 156 represented by one token only, only 20 dated later than the 4th millennium; Uruk is central to the issue, as we shall see 6. Sheep: only 15 ‘sheep’ tokens are known: by millennia, 1 × 7th, 3 × 4th, 3 × 1st, 8 undateable; this is significant given the role of sheep in the economy! . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Early Uruk tablets . . . . 53 / 56 . . L3 /03 The development of writing . . Early Uruk tablets 2013-03-01 . . . . Early Uruk tablets . 1. Le: one of the earliest pictographic tablets from Uruk. We are now aware that the dating of the Uruk objects is precarious and ultimately not possible with any degree of precision in light of find spots and the notes of excavators: ‘Although …difficult to interpret, it is clear that the signs can stand for nothing else but objects and persons’. 2. However, radiocarbon dates of stratigraphically clear tablets suggests 34th century for the first examples of actual recognizable writing. 3. Right: ledger tablet from Uruk with cases of numbers and personal names—which don’t sum up to the ‘total’ on the reverse! . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . From pictograph to cuneiform . . . 55 / 56 . . L3 /03 The development of writing . . From pictograph to cuneiform 2013-03-01 . . . From pictograph to cuneiform . 1. This table shows the traceable evolution of pictographs (concrete representations) to later cuneiform. 2. Second last column: early Sumerian cuneiform. 3. Last column: neo-Assyrian cuneiform of the first millennium . . . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Some early tablets . . . . . 57 / 56 . Greater Mesopotamia The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods Northern Mesopotamia A parallel evolution The development of writing . Pythagoras before Pythagoras . . . 58 / 56