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Structure of Lithuanian
2016 © Yuriy Kushnir
Structure of Lithuanian
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1
Adjectival Declension
Lithuanian determiners and adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number and
case:
tàs gražùs výras
tõ gražaũs výro
tõs gražiõs móters
(1)
that handsome man
that handsome man’s
that pretty woman’s
M.Nom.Sg
M.Gen.Sg
F.Gen.Sg
Like nouns, adjectives are divided into several desclension classes based on the endings they
take. Adjectives have fewer declension types than nouns:
Adjectival declension types
(differences from the respective noun declension classes highlighted)
(2)
Class I
geras ‘good’
M
F
Class II
gražus ‘beautiful’
M
F
Class III
medinis ‘wooden’
M
F
n.sg
g.sg
d.sg
a.sg
i.sg
l.sg
gẽras
gẽro
gerám
gẽrą
gerù
geramè
gerà
gerõs
gẽrai
gẽrą
gerà
gerojè
gražùs
gražaũs
gražiám
grãžų
gražiù
gražiamè
gražı̀
gražiõs
grãžiai
grãžią
gražià
gražiojè
medı̀nis
medı̀nio
medı̀niam
medı̀nį
mediniù
medı̀niame
medı̀nė
medı̀nės
medı̀nei
medı̀nę
medinè
medìnėje
n.pl
g.pl
d.pl
a.pl
i.pl
l.pl
gerı̀
gerų̃
gerı́ems
gerùs
geraı̃s
geruosè
gẽros
gerų̃
geróms
geràs
geromı̀s
gerosè
grãžūs
gražių̃
gražı́ems
gražiùs
gražiaı̃s
gražiuosè
grãžios
gražių̃
gražióms
gražiàs
gražiomı̀s
gražiosè
medı̀niai
medı̀nių
medı̀niams
mediniùs
medı̀niais
medı̀niuose
medı̀nės
medı̀nių
medı̀nėms
medinès
medı̀nėmis
medı̀nėse
Primary (root) adjectives are usually Class I or II. They normally have unaccented stems. Class
III comprises adjectives derived from other parts of speech. Their declension is closest to that
of normal nouns.
There are also several irregular adjectives whose declension is not included here.
If the definiteness of a DP needs to be underscored, or if an Adj-N combination denotes a specific
class of things (i.e. the adjective is no longer a mere modifier describing a property of the head
noun), the adjectival inflection 1 is supplemented by an inflected form of the personal pronoun
‘he’ or ‘she’, producing the following augmented forms:
1
Usually only in classes I and II.
1
Structure of Lithuanian
2016 © Yuriy Kushnir
Augmented adjectives
(3)
M
Class I
geras ‘good’
F
M
Class II
gražus ‘beautiful’
F
n.sg
g.sg
d.sg
a.sg
i.sg
l.sg
geràsis
gẽrojo
gerájam
gẽrąjį
gerúoju
gerãjame
geróji
gerõsios
gẽrajai
gẽrąją
gerą́ja
gerõjoje
gražùsis
grãžiojo
gražiájam
grãžųjį
gražiúoju
gražiãjame
gražióji
gražiõsios
grãžiajai
grãžiąją
gražią́ja
gražiõjoje
n.pl
g.pl
d.pl
a.pl
i.pl
l.pl
gerı́eji
gerų̃jų
gerı́esiems
gerúosius
geraı̃siais
geruõsiuose
gẽrosios
gerų̃jų
gerósioms
gerą́sias
gerõsiomis
gerõsiose
gražı́eji
gražių̃jų
gražı́esiems
gražiúosius
gražiaı̃siais
gražiuõsiuose
grãžiosios
gražių̃jų
gražiósioms
gražią́sias
gražiõsiomis
gražiõsiose
The difference in meaning is sometime quite subtle, especially since non-augmented adjectives
readily modify definite objects:
(4)
tàs skanùs maı̃stas ‘that tasty food’
tàs skanùsis maı̃stas ‘that (exquisitely) tasty food’
(5)
a.
b.
Nerašýk (sù) tuõ
‘Don’t write with
Nerašýk (sù) tuõ
‘Don’t write with
pieštukù! Rašýk (sù) raudónu!
this pencil! Use a red one!’
pieštukù! Rašýk (sù) raudonúoju!
this pencil! Use the/this red one!’
áukštas pãstatas ‘a tall building’
aukštàsis išsilãvinimas ‘higher education’ (non-combinational reading)
(6)
Non-relative adjectives have degrees of comparison:
gẽras ‘good’ → gerèsnis ‘better’ → geriáusias ‘best’
(7)
Comparative and superlative, as well as augmentative forms (gerókas ‘pretty good’), inflect
for gender, number and case. They can also appear in the augmented forms (though not so
frequently):
geriáusio///
misiomis → good.sprl.augm.f.instr.pl, i.e. ‘with the best ones (f)’ 2
(8)
2
Normal people will just say geriáusiom(is) :-)
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Structure of Lithuanian
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2016 © Yuriy Kushnir
Truncated Forms
Some nominal and verbal endings are truncated in colloquial speech:
(9)
Mẽs dúodame saldainiùs gerı́ems vaikáms → mẽs dúodam saldainiùs gerı́em vaikám
‘We are giving candy to the good kids.’
(10)
Bùvome Lietuvojè → bùvom Lietuvõj
‘We were in Lithuania.’
(11)
Nóriu išeı̃ti → nóriu išeı̃t
‘I want to leave.’
Some forms become identical:
(12)
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várnoms (Dat), várnomis (Instr) → várnom
The World of Participles
There are active and passive participles in Lithuanians, existing in all the three tenses. The
masculine and feminine nominative singular forms are presented below:
(13)
Present
Present Conv.
Past
Future
Active
Passive
rãšantis/rãšąs, rãšanti
rašýdamas, rašýdama
rãšęs, rãšiusi
rašýsiantis, rašýsianti
rãšomas, rãšoma
–
rašýtas, rašýta
rašýsimas, rašýsima
The gerunds are based on the active participle (we learned the present-tense gerund):
(14)
rãšant, rãšius, rašýsiant
The full declension paradigm of the past active participle (augmented forms excluded):
(15)
The past active participle declined
dirbęs ‘the one who worked’
N
G
D
A
I
L
M.SG
F.SG
M.PL
F.PL
dirbęs
dirbusio
dirbusiam
dirbusį
dirbusiu
dirbusiame
dirbusi
dirbusios
dirbusiai
dirbusią
dirbusia
dirbusioje
dirbę
dirbusių
dirbusiems
dirbusius
dirbusiais
dirbusiuose
dirbusios
dirbusių
dirbusioms
dirbusias
dirbusiomis
dirbusiose
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Structure of Lithuanian
2016 © Yuriy Kushnir
Participles are extensively used in the language. For instance, the gerunds and the converb
occur frequently in embedded clauses. The present active gerund and the present-tense converb
both describe an action simultaneous with that rendered by the matrix verb. The converb is
used when the subjects are co-referent, and the gerund is used when the subjects are different:
(16)
a.
b.
Jõn-ui
rãš-ant
láišk-ą,
Rūt-à
ilsė-j-o-Ø-si
J-dat.sg write-ger.prs letter-acc.sg R-nom.sg rest-ep-th.pst-3-rfl
‘While John was writing a/the letter, Ruta was resting.’
PROi/*j rašý-dam-as
láišką,
Jõn-asi
gė́r-ė-Ø
kãv-ą
write-conv-m.sg letter-acc.sg J-nom.sg drink-th.pst-3 coffee-acc.sg
PRO
‘While writing a/the letter, John was drinking coffee.’
not:
‘While someone was writing a letter, John was drinking coffee.’
Since there is no past-tense converb, the difference here is rendered by using the agreeing for for
co-referent subjects and a plain gerund for different subjects:
(17)
a.
b.
Jõn-ui
iš-ė̃-j-us,
Rūt-à
iš-vė́m-ė-Ø
añt grind-ų̃
J-dat.sg out-go-ep-ger.pst R-nom.sg out-vomit-th.pst-3 on floor-gen.pl
‘After John left, Ruta vomited on the floor.’
iš-ė̃-j-ęs,
Jõn-as
iš-vė́m-ė-Ø
añt
out-go-ep-ptcp.pst.act.m.sg.nom J-nom.sg out-vomit-th.pst-3 on
grind-ų̃
floor-gen.pl
‘Having walked out, John vomited on the floor.’
Active participles are also found in attributive positions:
(18)
padė́-k nu-krı̀t-us-iai
mergı̀n-ai!
help-imp down-fall-ptcp.pst.act-f.dat.sg girl.f-dat.sg
‘Help the girl who has fallen down!’
Passive participles are often used to form passive clauses:
(19)
a.
b.
nãm-as
bùv-o-Ø
pa-statý-t-as
pérnai
houe-nom.sg be-th.pst-3 pv-put.up-ptcp.pst.pass-m.nom.sg last.year
‘The house was built last year.’
nãm-as
yrà
stãt-o-m-as
house-nom.sg be.prs.3 put.up-th.prs-ptcp.prs.pass-m.nom.sg
‘The house is being built.’
They can also be used attributively:
(20)
jı̀s ı̀š-met-ė-Ø
su-gadiñ-t-ą
knỹg-ą
he out-throw-th.pst-3 pv-ruin-ptcp.pst.pass-f.acc.sg book.f-acc.sg
‘He threw the ruined book out.’
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Structure of Lithuanian
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2016 © Yuriy Kushnir
The Verbal Particles and Verbal Derivation
Just like in English and German, Lithuanian verbal roots combine with endless particles (primarily prepositional in origin) to yield new aspects of meaning:
(21)
rašýti – to be writing / to write repeatedly 3
parašýti – to complete writing / to write a whole piece
pérrašyti – to rewrite (no additional semantics, perfective interpretation)
nurašýti – to copy (as in ‘abschreiben’)
užrašýti – to write/note down
atrašýti – to respond in writing
...
In many instances, there is no real change in meaning, but merely the addition of telicity (derived
perfectivity):
(22)
a.
b.
(23)
a.
b.
Jõn-as
rãš-ė-Ø
knỹg-ą
J-nom.sg write-th.pst-3 book-acc.sg
‘John was writing a/the book.’
Jõn-as
pa-rãš-ė-Ø
knỹg-ą
J-nom.sg pv-write-th.pst-3 book-acc.sg
‘John wrote a/the book.’
tė́v-as
baũd-ė-Ø
vaik-ùs
father-nom.sg punish-th.pst-3 child-acc.pl
‘The father was punishing / used to punish the children.’
tė́v-as
nù-baud-ė-Ø
vaik-ùs
father-nom.sg pv-punish-th.pst-3 child-acc.pl
‘The father punished the children.’
In combination with other roots, these prefixes yield semantic content (cf. nurašýti above).
The choice of the perfectivizing particle by a particular verb is largely idiosyncratic, although
there are certain commonalities and trends within semantic fields.
If a particle changes a verb’s meaning in addition to making it telic, the resulting verb can be
made atelic by applying special ‘imperfectivizing’ derivational suffixes:
(24)
a.
b.
c.
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jı̀s rãš-ė-Ø
rãšin-į
he write-th.pst-3 composition-acc.sg
‘He was writing a/the composition.’
jı̀s pa-rãš-ė-Ø
rãšin-į
he pv-write-th.pst-3 composition-acc.sg
‘He wrote a/the composition.’
jı̀s pér-raš-ė-Ø
rãšin-į
he over-write-th.pst-3 composition-acc.sg
‘He rewrote a/the composition.’
Root verbs are typically atelic in Lithuanian.
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Structure of Lithuanian
d.
2016 © Yuriy Kushnir
jı̀s pér-raš-inė-j-o-Ø
rãšin-į
he over-write-iter-ep-th.pst-3 composition-acc.sg
‘He was rewriting a/the composition.’
Some verbs are awkward with such derivational suffixes, so they have to either be ambiguous
between telic and atelic readings, or remain defective and use other tools to express actions in
progress:
(25)
a.
b.
c.
d.
(26)
padė́ti
padedinė́ti
–
–
to help
*to be helping (OK in the meaning to help many times)
jiẽ mán
labaı̃ padė́-j-o-Ø
they me.dat a.lot help-ep-th.pst-3
‘They helped me a lot.’
How does one say: they were helping me (when mother came) ?
jiẽ bùv-o-Ø
mán
be-paded-ą̃,
kaı̃
they be-th.pst-3 me.dat prog-help-ptcp.prs.act.m.nom.pl when
at-ė̃-j-o-Ø
mam-à
here-go-ep-th.pst-3 mom-nom.sg
‘They were just helping me when mom came.’ 4
mán
patı̀k-o-Ø
ta
dain-à
me.dat like-th.pst-3 dem.f.nom.sg song.f-nom.sg
‘I liked this song (when I heard it).’
or:
‘I used to like this song.’
Verbal particles also have a tendency to be stressed after particular verbs in particular morphosyntactic configurations. It seems like, in these forms, the verbal root loses it’s inherent accent,
and so the particle (being the closest element to the left edge of the word) receives epenthetic
stress by default.
(27)
a.
b.
keı̃sti – to change
keičiù – I change
keı̃čia – he changes
keičiaũ – I was changing
keı̃tė – he was changing
iškeı̃sti – to exchange
iškeičiù – I exchange
iškeı̃čia – he exchanges
ı̀škeičiau – I exchanged
ı̀škeitė – he exchanged
The rules responsible for the distribution of accents in verbal forms are quite complex.
4
There is, however, an additional implication in this sentence, namely, that the mother’s arrival interrupted
the helping process.
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Structure of Lithuanian
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2016 © Yuriy Kushnir
Pronouns and Animacy
Interestingly enough, animacy is not encoded in any way in the grammar of Lithuanian, not
even in the interrogative pronouns:
(28)
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Kàs taı̃ yrà? – Who/what is this?
Ką̃ tù mateı̃? – Who/what did you see?
What is Relevant for the Final Exam
• The phoneme inventory. The vowel/consonant phonemes.
• The neutralization of phonemic distinctions in particular contexts (e.g. neutralization of
low vowels).
• Other phonological processes (e.g. lengthening, place assimilation, nasal absorption, voicing/devoicing, palatalization in general, palatalization of /t/ and /d/ before back vowels
with an intervening glide).
• The syllable structure. Light and heavy syllables. Which vowels are capable of forming
heavy rhymes with which consonants?
• Pitch accent. The phonetic cues of pitch accent on different types of rhymes (simple vowels.
diphthongs, mixed rhymes).
• The noun. Gender, number and case. Paradigms I.a and II.a.
• Noun stem classes with respect to accent. Ending classes. De Saussure’s Law. Stem and
ending interacting.
• The verbal paradigm. The theme vowels and their alternations for all tenses. The agreement affixes. Accentual interaction of stems and agreement affixes.
• Case. Subjects and objects. Possessors. Instruments. Spacial relations. Prepositional
case. Genitive of negation.
• Subordinate clauses headed by present-tense gerunds. The case frame in such clauses.
Bibliography
Ambrazas, Vytautas (2006): Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika (A grammar of Modern
Lithuanian). Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, Vilnius.
Blevins, Juliette (1993): ‘A tonal analysis of Lithuanian nominal accent’, Language pp. 237–273.
Dambriūnas, Leonardas, Antanas Klimas and William R Schmalstieg (1998): Beginner’s
Lithuanian. Hippocrene Books.
Meilutė Ramonienė and Joana Pribušauskaitė (2008): Praktinė lietuvių kalbos gramatika (A
practical grammar of Lithuanian). Baltos Lankos, Vilnius.
Smoczyński, Wojciech (2007): Lietuvių kalbos etimologinis žodynas. Edytor "Printer Polyglott".
Stang, Chr. S. (1966): Vergleichende Grammatik der baltischen Sprachen. Universitetsforlaget,
Oslo-Bergen-Tromsø.
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