Download ZOO1110 Midterm 3 List of Topics.DOC

ATOMS AND ELEMENTS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF ALL MATTER
matter
mass
elements
atom: basic chemical unit of matter
Structure of Atoms
nucleus
electron cloud
protons (p+)
neutrons (n0)
electrons (e-) (Dr. O’s philosophical view of the force of life)
atomic number
atomic mass
isotopes
radioisotopes radioisotopes (add neutrons)
tracers for marking compounds to follow pathway
dating old fossil remains
used for destructive purposes
generate energy
Energy-Level Shells
energy-level shells (clouds of electrons)
COMPOUNDS AND MOLECULES: AGGREGATES OF ATOMS
compound
molecules
chemical bonds
Covalent Bonds: Sharing Electron Pairs
covalent bond
single, double, triple bond
nonpolar, polar covalent bond
Ionic Bonds: Opposites Attract
ion
positively, negatively charged
cation, anion
ionic bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
Water H2O - dipole molecule + & - charges
ACIDS, BASES, AND BUFFERS
electrolyte
acid, base
+
pH: Measuring Acidity (H conc) & Alkalinity (OH conc)
pH scale
acidic, basic solutions
pH: Control with Buffers
buffers
THE MOLECULES OF ANIMALS
organic, inorganic molecules
single, double covalent bond
hydrocarbons
functional (active, reactive) groups
Carbohydrate: Sources of Stored Energy
carbohydrates
monosaccharides, sugars
isomers
disaccharide
polysaccharides
chitin
Lipids: Energy, Interfaces, and Signals
lipids, fats
fatty acids, glycerol
triglyceride
saturated, unsaturated, polyunsaturated fatty acid
oil, phospholipid, cholesterol, steroidal hormones, vitamin D
Proteins: The Basis of Life's Diversity
amino acids, proteins,
amino group/carboxyl group
peptide bonds
di-, tri-, polypeptide
primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary structure
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids: Information Storage, Chemical Messengers,
& Energy Transfer
Nucleotide
phosphate
ribose sugar
nitrogenous base
adenosine phosphates
ATP/ADP/AMP
nucleotide coenzymes
nucleic acids
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
double strand twisted
ribose sugar C2 –H
nitrogenous bases: adenine/guanine/cytosine/thymine
pyrimidine: 1 ring structure cytosine/thymine
purine: 2 ring structure: adenine/guanine
Chargaff’s Rule (1949)
adenine-thymine pairing
guanine-cytosine pairing
Franklin & Wilkins (1951-53): X-ray diffraction
Watson & Crick (1953): Model of the DNA
Watson, Crick & Wilkins: Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology 1962
function: genetic code (blueprint of life)
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
single strand
ribose sugar C2 –OH
nitrogenous bases: adenine/guanine/cytosine/uracil
mRNA/tRNA/rRNA
function: protein synthesis
Miller & Urey 1952 Chemical Evolution
heat & sparking inorganic gases, organic methane & waterà
organic compounds = building blocks for cellular structures
INTRODUCTION
hierarchy of biological organization
WHAT IS LIFE?
Attributes:
Cellular organization
Sensitivity (respond to stimuli)
Growth (mitosis)
Development
Reproduction (meiosis)
Regulation
Homeostasis (Metabolism)
Heredity (DNA & Transmission)
WHAT ARE CELLS?
Cell - basic unit of life
Robert Hooke (1663) with microscope observed cork/leaf cells -coined term cells
van Leeuvwenhoek (1673-1723) observed cells with microscope
Schlieden (1838) observed plant cells
Schwann (1839) observed animal cells
Cell Theory: all living organisms are composed of cells (Schlieden & Schwann)
Purkinje described protoplasm
evolutionary history:
4.6-4.8 bya formation of earth
3.6 bya prokaryotes
1.6 bya eukaryotes
0.6 bya (600 mya) multicellular
prokaryotes, eukaryotes
organelle
cytoskeleton
plasma membrane
cytoplasm, cytosol
nucleus, nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm
The Origin of Eukaryotic Cells
endosymbiont, membrane invagination hypotheses
symbiosis
WHY ARE MOST CELLS SMALL?
surface area to volume ratio
Microscopes Windows into the Cell
microscopy
light microscope
electron microscope
CELL MEMBRANES
plasma membrane
Structure of Cell Membranes
lipid bilayer model (Gorter & Grendel, 1925)
fluid-mosaic model (Singer & Nicolson, 1972)
hydrophobic, hydrophilic
extrinsic, intrinsic proteins
glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycocalyx
Functions of Cell Membranes
selective permeability
+
homeostasis : high K intracellular conc
MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANES
Simple Diffusion
dynamic equilibrium
simple diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
protein channels (pores)
facilitated diffusion
carrier protein
no energy required
goes with concentration gradient
Osmosis
osmotic pressure/ hydrostatic pressure
isosmotic, hyperosmotic, hyposmotic
tonicity, isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic
crenation
Filtration
filtration
Active Transport
active transport
carrier protein
requires energy
goes against concentration gradient
sodium-potassium-ATPase pump , calcium pump
Endocytosis
endocytosis
pinocytosis
vesicle
phagocytosis, phagolysosome
receptor-mediated endocytosis
Exocytosis
exocytosis
CYTOPLASM, ORGANELLES, AND CELLULAR COMPONENTS
Cytoplasm
cytoskeleton
cytosol (aqueous phase)
Ribosomes: Protein Workbenches
ribosomes
messenger RNA (mRNA)
polyribosomes (polysomes)
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Production and Transport
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
rough, smooth ER
Golgi Apparatus: Packaging & Export
Golgi apparatus (complex)
cisternae
transfer, secretory vesicles
Lysosomes: Digestion and Degradation
lysosomes
acid hydrolases
Mitochondria: Power Generators
mitochondria
mtDNA
cristae, matrix
Microtubules, Intermediate Filaments & Microfilaments: The Cytoskeleton
microtubules
tubulins
intermediate filaments
microfilaments
myofibrils
cytoskeleton
Cilia & Flagella: Movement
cilia, flagella
axoneme (axial filament)
dynein arms, spokes, basal body
Centrioles: Specialized Microtubules
centrioles
Cytoplasmic Inclusions: Storage
cytoplasmic inclusions
THE NUCLEUS; INFORMATION CENTER
Nuclear Envelope: Gateway to the Nucleus
nuclear envelope, pores
Chromosomes: Genetic Containers
chromatin, chromosomes, genes
Nucleolus: Preassembly Point for Ribosomes
nucleolus
WHAT IS ENERGY?
energy
work
kinetic, potential energy
thermodynamics
kilocalorie (kcal), calorie
THE LAWS OF ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
matter
mass
First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy)
Second law of thermodynamics
entropy
ACTIVATION ENERGY
activation energy
catalysis, catalyst
ENZYMES; BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS
enzyme, substrates
Enzyme Structure
active site
induced fit
Enzyme Function
enzyme-substrate complex (ES)
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
denaturation
COFACTORS AND COENZYMES
cofactors, coenzymes
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)
TROPHIC LEVEL – ENERGY FLUX
primary producers
primary consumers
herbivore
secondary consumers
food chain
decomposers
metabolism, anabolism, catabolism
ATP: THE CELL'S ENERGY CURRENCY
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
adenine, ribose, phosphate
high energy bond
adenosine diphosphate (ADP), adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
How Cells Trap Energy: An Overview
substrate-level phosphorylation
chemiosmosis
cellular (oxidative) respiration
aerobic respiration
INTRODUCTION
catabolism/anabolism
reduction/oxidation reactions
exogenic/endogeneric
glycolysis
aerobic, anaerobic
fermentation
GLYCOLYSIS: THE FIRST PHASE OF NUTRIENT METABOLISM
glycolysis
pyruvate (pyruvic acid)
Evolutionary Perspective on Glycolysis
Fermentation: ``Life Without Air''
fermentation
anaerobic, facultatively anaerobic
AEROBIC RESPIRATION: THE BIG ENERGY HARVEST
aerobic respiration
Krebs (citric acid ) cycle
flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
electron transport chain
The Energy Score for Oxidative Respiration: A Balance Sheet
METABOLISM OF FATS AND PROTEINS: ALTERNATIVE FOOD MOLECULES
lipase
catabolism of amino acids/proteins = deamination reaction
+
NH3/ NH4 1amine gourp very toxic; aquatic organisms
Urea 2 amine groups less toxic; mammals & amphibians
uric acid: 4 amine groups least toxic; insects, birds, reptiles
INTRODUCTION
sexual reproduction
cell division
MITOSIS, CYTOKINESIS, AND THE CELL CYCLE: AN OVERVIEW
mitosis
cytokinesis
interphase
cell cycle (Figure 6.1)
G1 (first gap), S (DNA synthesis), G2 (second gap), M
(mitotic) phases of cell cycle
INTERPHASE: PARTITIONING THE HEREDITARY MATERIAL
interphase (G1, S, G2 phases)
replication
chromatid, sister chromatids
centromere, kinetochore
condensation
PHASES OF MITOSIS
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
Prophase: Formation of the Mitotic Apparatus
chromo somes condense = visible
nuclear envelope fragmentsà contained in vesicles
centrioles
aster
microtubule fibers
mitotic spindle apparatus
Metaphase: Separation of Sister Chromatids
chromosomes aligned along the metaphasic plate
Anaphase: Movement of the Chromosomes
centromeres divide
sister chromatids split
Telophase: Reformation of Nuclei
cleavage appears
chromosomes reach the opposite poles
vesicles containing nuclear fragments reappear
CYTOKINESIS: PARTITIONING THE CYTOPLASM
cytokinesis
contractile ring
cleavage furrow
CONTROL OF THE CELL CYCLE
Maturation Promoting Factor (cyclin)
Regulatory genes
EUKARYOTIC CHROMOSOMES
chromatin
Heterochromatin and Euchromatin
inactive (heterochromatic) regions
active (euchromatic) regions
Organization of DNA and Protein
histone proteins
nucleosome
Sex Chromosomes and Autosomes
sex chromosomes, autosomes
X-O, X-Y system (of sex determination)
Number of Chromosomes
diploid,
CHANGES IN CHROMOSOME NUMBER AND STRUCTURE
Detecting Number and Structure Changes
karyotyping
DNA: THE GENETIC MATERIAL
The Double-Helix Model
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
molecular genetics
Nucleic-Acid Structure
purine, pyrimidine
adenine, guanine, cytosine
thymine, uracil
deoxyribose, ribose
antiparallel
CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION IN EUKARYOTES
structural genes
regulator genes