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What makes writing ‘academic’?
Learning Skills Group
Overview of this workshop
This module will focus on:
1.  Main characteristics of academic writing
2.  What to avoid in academic writing
3.  Language features of academic writing COPYRIGHT © LEARNING & TEACHING CENTRE
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Academic writers need to be certain that their written
communications are appropriate in style. Therefore,
they need to know what is considered to be academic
style and what is not.
As a postgraduate student, you also need to know about this.
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Task 1: From your experience, how is an academic text
different from other types of texts we read in everyday life?
Can you write a list of some features of academic writing
on your handout?
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1] Main characteristics of academic writing
Logical
Deductive/inductive argument
structure, general à specific
Rational
Based on reasoning
Impersonal
Formal, not personal
Objective
Arguments supported by
evidence, research results à
anecdotal evidence/feelings
Precise
Present facts as precise as
possible
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Task 2: Look at the two extracts in your handout.
1. Which one do you think is from an academic text?
2. What features in writing tell you that this is an academic
article?
(Source of texts from Brick, 2012, p. 5-­‐6) COPYRIGHT © LEARNING & TEACHING CENTRE
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2] What to avoid in academic writing
i.  Avoid using ‘I’ , ‘We’ and ‘you’ ???
ii. Avoid informal expressions
•  contractions (e.g., can’t à cannot, won’t à will not)
•  vague expression (e.g., and so on and so forth, etc.)
•  abbreviations that are not commonly used or informal
(e.g., b4 àbefore), provide the full form when first mention
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iii.  Avoid using phrasal verbs
(e.g., get rid of à eliminate,
make up à constitute)
iv.  Avoid using the imperative
(i.e., start a sentence with a verb, e.g., Consider the
case of …, Examine the causes of …)
v.  Avoid being too emotional
(e.g., Unfortunately, ….;
It is a pity that …)
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Task 3: Rewrite the following sentences by selecting a word
from the list to replace the phrasal verb. You may need to
change the tense of the given word. The first is an example.
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3] Language features of academic writing
What should we use then?
•  nominalisation
•  hedging
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Use of nominalisation
•  frequent use of nouns or noun phrases
•  academic writing is about ideas and concepts
•  How to use nominalisation? Change verbs to nouns
(e.g., establish à establishment, agree à agreement,
pollute àpollution)
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Use of nominalisation Compare
the following three sentences:
1a. The government has introduced some new regulations
to improve road safety. (verb)
1b. The introduction of some new regulations aims to
improve road safety.
1c. The government has introduced some new regulations
for the improvement of road safety.
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Use of nominalisation Compare these two sentences:
2a. The opposition leader strongly disagreed with the new
government proposal.
2b. Strong disagreement was expressed by the opposition
leader on the new government proposal.
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Use of hedging
Purposes:
•  to show uncertainty
•  to weaken our claims when we do not have enough evidence
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1. To express likelihood
Notice the strength in claims is weaken ...
a. 
b. 
c. 
d. 
e. 
f. 
It is certain that …
It is highly likely that …
It is likely that …
It is possible that …
It is unlikely that …
It is very / highly unlikely that …
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Notice the claim changes in the following sentences.
a. 
b. 
c. 
d. 
e. 
Smoking leads to lung cancer.
Smoking can lead to lung cancer.
Smoking could lead to lung cancer.
Smoking may lead to lung cancer.
Smoking might lead to lung cancer.
Which sentence has the strongest claim?
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2. To soften generalisation
Sometimes writers have to make generalisations after
drawing conclusions from research results.
Generalisations should be grounded in some reasonable
evidence and stated cautiously.
Do you know how to soften generalisations?
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Method 1. Use three ‘classic’ verbs
a.  Girls tend to do better in girl schools than in
co-educational schools.
b. Girls appear to do better in girl schools than in
co-educational schools.
c. Girls seem to do better in girl schools than in
co-educational schools.
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Method 2. Qualify the subject
a. Many girls do better in girl schools than in
co-educational schools.
b. Some girls do better in girl schools than in
co-educational schools.
c. In certain subjects, girls do better in girl schools than
in co-educational schools.
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Method 3. Indicate frequency
a.  Girls often do better in girl schools than in
co-educational schools.
b.  Girls usually do better in girl schools than in
co-educational schools.
c.  Girls sometimes do better in girl schools than in
co-educational schools.
(other frequency words: rarely, occasionally, at times,
frequently, not infrequently)
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Method 4. Use weaker verbs
We can choose a weaker verb to reduce the strength of claims.
a.  Many studies have indicated that there has been an
increase in human trafficking.
(stronger claim)
b. Many studies have suggested that there has been an
increase in human trafficking.
(weaker claim)
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Task 4: Underline the verb that makes the weaker claim.
a. Previous studies (challenge / question) the effects of
alcohol consumption on brain damage in teenagers.
b. The survey results (establish / indicate) that there is a
link between parenting behaviour and adolescence
adjustment.
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c. The results given in Figure 1 (validate / support) the
conclusion that consumers choice tend to be affected
by marketing strategies.
d. Changes in the experiment condition may have (influenced /
distorted) the test results.
e. The listening assessment results have been (assumed /
shown) to be affected by the quality of the sound track.
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(Source: Swales and Feak, 2012, p. 163-­‐164) 24
Task 5: Rewrite the following claims. Try to soften the tone
and make the sentences more respectable and defensible.
a.  Using solar energy is the best solution to energy crisis.
b.  Economic development is essential.
c.  Rich people have more healthy eating habits than
poor people.
d. Financial difficulties cause depression.
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Should I use active or passive voice?
Compare the following two sentences:
a.  Figure 4 shows the population sectors which suffered
from social exclusion between 2000-2005 in Australia.
b. The population sectors which suffered from social
exclusion between 2000-2005 in Australia are shown
in Figure 4.
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Compare the following two sentences:
a.  Fifty questionnaires were completed by research
participants.
b. Fifty research participants completed the questionnaire.
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Both active and passive voices are used in academic writing.
Use the right voice to serve your purpose
•  active voice focuses on the doer of action
•  passive voice is useful in process descriptions
e.g., Data were collected from 50 semi-structured interviews.
(Who actually collected the data is not important.)
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Be concise!
Compare the following sentences:
1a. It may be difficult to make a decision about the method
that should be used.
1b. Selecting the appropriate method may be difficult.
2a. There are some inorganic materials that can be used in
tissue engineering by bioengineers in the process of tissue
engineering that have been shown to be very promising.
2b. Some inorganic materials have shown great promise
in tissue engineering.
(Swales and Feak, 2012, p. 25)
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What’s more …?
Try: Academic writing conventions quiz in StudyWISE
30/07/15
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References
Brick, J. (2012). Academic culture: A student’s guide to studying
at university. Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching
and Research, Macquarie University.
Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B. (2012). Academic writing for graduate
students: Essential tasks and skills (3rd ed.). Michigan:
University of Michigan Press.
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