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"I am grateful for having been born to a tough little nation
in the middle of the European continent, able to absorb the positive
cultural influences of our Western neighbors, enjoying great traditions,
imparting good education to its sons and daughters, home to worldrenowned talent and exhibiting resilience in the face of historical
tragedy while nurturing an abiding faith in God.
The greatness of a nation is measured not by its size or population,
but by its talent and by the depth of its soul. In this respect,
Hungary is a giant and I am a son of that nation."
Quoted from my supplemental diary entitled
''Reflections”, Chapter on Original sins, - ancient virtues.
Jules S. Vallay
Copyright Jules S. Vallay
All rights reserved
File:Munkacsy honfoglalas
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
OUR HUNGARIAN HERITAGE
PART I
Page #
Introduction
1
About this work
1
The Magyar language
2
Footnotes to the Magyar peregrinations
3
The myth of the "Csodaszarvas" (Miracle Stag)
4
History
4
King Stephen and Christianity 1000-1038
4
6
Opinion
The Holy Crown Theory
6
Hungarian saints
8
THE ÁRPÁD DYNASTY
10
Peter Orseolo
1038-1041 & 1044-1046
10
Samuel Aba
1041-1044
10
Andrew I (I Endre)
1046-1060
11
Béla I
1060-1063
12
1063-1074
13
1074-1077
13
Solomon (Salamon)
Géza I
Ladislaus I (Szent László) 1077-1095
14
The Holy Dexter
14
Coloman (Könyves Kalman) 1095-1116
16
Oddities of royal succession
17
The 10th century
21
THE NEXT THOUSAND YEARS
23
Stephen II (II. István)
1116-1131
23
1131-1141
23
Béla II (Vak Béla)
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
Remarks
2
Géza II
1141-1162
24
Stephen Ill (Ill. István) 1162-1172
24
Usurpers of the throne
25
Ladislaus II (II. László)1162-1163
25
Stephen IV (IV. lstván) 1163-1163
26
The Court jester
27
Béla Ill
1172-1192
28
A little detour: the royal women
29
St. Margaret of Scotland
30
1196-1204
31
Ladislaus Ill (Ill. László) 1204-1205
32
Andrew II (II. Endre)
32&36
Emeric I (1. lmre)
1205-1235
The 5th crusade
33
The Golden Bull
34
St. Elizabeth of Hungary
37
Bánk bán
38
Béla IV
1235-1270
40
The Mongol invasion
41
St. Margaret of Hungary
43
1270-1272
44
Ladislaus IV (IV. László) 1272-1290
45
Andrew Ill (III. András)
47
Stephen V (V. István)
1290-1301
Ethnographical mix of historic Hungary
The Cuman people
49
49
Attila's Huns
49
The Székelys
51
The Jász people
51
The 11th and 12th centuries
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
52
3
THE HOUSE OF ANJOU
54
A refresher
54
The interregnum
54
Wenceslaus III/Ladislaus V (V. László) 1305-1306
55
Otto Ill/Béla V
1305-1308
55
Charles I (Károly Róbert)
1308-1342
56
Ambition on a royal scale
56
THE ANGVIN DYNASTY
57
Louis I (Nagy Lajos)
1342-1382
58
Mary of Anjou (Mária)
1382-1395
60
1385-1386
Charles II (Kis Károly)
Sigismund of Luxembourg (Zsigmond) 13871437
61
62&72
62&69
The 13th and 14th centuries
62
The Mongol menace
63
The crusades
66
Relics of Hungarian literature
Halotti beszéd, Ómagyar Mária siralom
68
Social changes
68
The Habsburgs
71
The Hundred Years War
71
The situation in Hungary
72&75
Sigismund (continued)
73
The battle of Nicopolis
Albert
76
1437-1439
THE JAGIELLONIAN DYNASTY
Vladislaus Ill (I. Ulászló)
77
1440-1444
Ladislaus the Posthumous (V. László) 1444-1457
John Hunyadi
77
1446-1456
Nándorfehérvár
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
78
79
81
4
Matthias Corvinus (Mátyás) 1458-1490
84
The era and aura of Matthias Corvinus
84
Foreign policy & domestic matters
86
Italian Renaissance in the 15th century
88
The 15th century
91
Vladislaus II (II. Ulászlo) 1490-1516
93
The Dózsa revolt
94
Louis II (II. Lájos)
1516-1526
Continued in Part II.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
95
1
OUR HUNGARIAN HERITAGE
Christmas, 2013
I began to write this compendium of facts and stories about Hungary in the mid-1970s, updating some of the
information as history turned its pages. Surely, history, culture and customs of this country mean much to us,
since our family's roots and heritage reside within her. Hopefully, it will also clear up some misconceptions
about our roots and humbly acknowledge and confirm some missteps our forefathers (and our
contemporaries) have taken. After all, as Paul Lendvai, author of "The Hungarians" (copyright 2003,
Princeton University Press) wrote: "To be a Hungarian is a collective neurosis." (The subtitle of his book
reads: "A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat.")
My intention is to leave this packet with my children and grandchildren for their eventual reference into
their past.
ABOUT THIS WORK
I was working for Empire National Bank in 1976 when I read an announcement of the heart attack and
sudden death on Memorial Day of my former kindly boss, Klaus Siebert. Klaus, like several of my former
colleagues at Citicorp had worked for American Express as a travel executive. It was there that the idea
formed in his mind to transfer his expertise inthat field and start a new chain of travel offices through the
vast resources and extensive branch system of Citicorp. Word of his new enterprise reached me at a
time when my own father's passing precipitated the sale of the travel agency I ran in mid-Manhattan and
hastened to apply for a position as manager of one of the new Travel Selection Centers.
Klaus received me with a broad smile on his face and we hit it off immediately. He was a genuine,
personable man of action and vision. He hired me on the spot.
As we tread our daily lives, one could be tempted to say that events just "happen" in this world. Surely,
weather-related events and the passage of time are out of our control, but practically everything else, whether in our personal lives or inthe context of world-wide events, - is invented, generated and executed
by men (and women) in positions of decision-making. In this view, a mere couple of thousand managers,
politicians, inventors, artists, generals, doctors, sports figures and people in all kinds of situations decide
and launch events which ultimately create history. Klaus Siebert was one of those men and even though
his brilliant idea would not and could not achieve the goal which Klaus had in mind (because another man, a
judge with higher authority had a different point of view), Klaus had written his name in the book of
achievers. The failure of his creation would eventually cause the travel industry to take a different tack,
and ultimately cost him his life. One might win many battles, but sometimes wars are lost.
That is why, when I thought of writing about our Hungarian heritage, I decided to base it on the
ultimate leaders of each segment of history: to tell the story of the leaders, the doers, the go-getters, the
principals, the directors of events which caused (and keep causing) the actions of all of us on the stage of
history. I had previously written about momentous chapters in Hungarian history, such as my essays on
the revolutions of 1848 and 1956 and the long-reaching events subsequent to the Trianon Treaty, as well
as individual movers and shakers. This work is based on the lives and times of kings.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
2
When writing about history, one cannot expect total originality. Events don't change because a writer
gives it a different review. One can expect some bordering plagiarism, - although I will try to identify the
source, - and some repetition, but always hoping that the reader will gain something from these pages
which I am so eager to share. For the adults, whom our colorful Hungarian language pinpoints as those
who "megette a kenyere javat", - have eaten the better part of their bread, - there may not be much
newsworthiness here. But for the new generation just stepping on the stage, l would suggest to keep in
perspective the fact that events happen because someone, perhaps someone just like you, wanted itand
caused itto happen. If my small contribution helps nudging history, then I will have achieved my purpose.
THE MAGYAR LANGUAGE
The language originated in the deep Asian steppes and the sands of Mesopotamia a thousand years before
Christ was born. It was exposed to Sumerian, Finnish, Hun and other influences in Asia and the Middle
East, then traveled before the pursuit of Tartars and Pechenegs "on horseback", so to speak, to cross the
Carpathian mountains into the basin of Hungary where it was further exposed to German, Turkish
and Latin influence until once again the language traveled - this time hopping the ocean -with the
emigrants in the 20th century to America and to many other parts of the world. Yet, we still say our
prayers, count and cuss in Hungarian, even though we mix it now with English and American flavor. The
Magyar language is thus a living witness to the 1,000 years of Hungarian history. It is believed that the
name "Hungary" or Hungaria originated in the 7th century when Magyar tribes were part of a Bulgar
alliance called On-Ogour, which inBulgar-Turkic meant Ten Arrows.
ORIGINS
The plain, partially surrounded by the Carpathian Mountains where today's Magyarorszag (Hungary) lies
was settled perhaps as early as 80,000 years ago by ancient man. Around the first century before Christ
nomadic Celts (from today's France) and Scythian tribes (from the Caucasus) settled in the area. Later it
became part of the Roman Empire as the province of Pannonia. The Romans expanded their holdings into
the (Hungarian) plains from about 35 years before the birth of Christ to the end of the 4th century A.D.
Ruins of the Roman settlements and bones and pottery from nomadic times can still be found in Hungary
today. Just outside Budapest there are extensive Roman ruins called Acquincum.
The Romans withdrew in the 5th century A.D. as Attila's Huns took their place arriving in 435 A.D., followed
by Avars who founded the Avar Khaganate (see the accompanying maps on migration) around 560 A.D.
and ruled the area for 250 years until Charlemagne defeated them inthe early 9th century. The first wave
of migrating Magyar tribes arrived in896 A.D. Evidence of archeological artifacts of Sumerian origin were
found in the Carpathian basin, giving rise to the (relatively) new theory that the Hungarians are not of
Finn-Ugric background, but from ancient civilizations inMesopotamia.
More recent findings have come to the unshakable conclusion that the Magyar language and the Magyar
people are directly descended from the Sumerians of Mesopotamia (the current Iran) as early as 3,000
B.C. From here the Sumerians and subsequently the Magyar tribes migrated via the Bosporus to the
Carpathian basin while others went North through the Caucasian mountains to the Volga region. Those
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
3
who chose the Northern route were led by Chief Árpád. When Arpad and his people finally arrived in the
Carpathian basin (the present Hungary) in 896 A.D., they found other Magyar or Magyar-related tribes
already living in the area. Both were descendants of the Sumerians. They "understood11 each other! The
clan (or tribe) of Chieftain (or Grand Prince) Arpad settled in what today is Csepel island in the Danube
river. The western half of modern Budapest along the right bank of the Danube got its name from Arpad's
brother, Buda.
FOOTNOTES to the MAGYAR PEREGRINATIONS
I am forever fascinated by the migration of early tribes of people and puzzled by their apparently
haphazard decision to settle here or there on the vast and largely underpopulated landscape of Western
Asia. Thanks to Constantine Porphyrogenitus (born in purple, or high-born), imperial administrator, we
have a written account of the Magyar tribes in the 10th century A.D. which might give an answer to why
and how the resettling of those tribes occurred.
The Magyar tribes were living in the area south of the Don River and north of the lower Danube. One of
their neighbors were the Pechenegs (“Bosnyak” in Hungarian), a Turkish nation which emerged in the
historical records only in the 8th and 9th centuries, inhabiting the region between the Volga and Don rivers
with their territory extending all the way to the Ural mountains. According to Constantine, 4 days of riding on
horseback (that's about 100 miles) separated them from the Hungarians whom the writer called
11 ,
"Tourkias
living in an area called Etelkoz. There, at Etelkoz, seven chiefs of the Magyar tribes entered
11
into a compact sealed in blood (called "verszerzodes , or blood contract) by drinking their mixed blood
from the same goblet. They elected Arpad as their lead tribal chief, or Grand Prince. The Hungarian
painter Mihaly Munkacsy's painting by the same title commemorates the event.
As deduced from later studies, we know that those tribes had been forced from their ancestral lands in
Mesopotamia, some of them crossing the Caucasian mountains to the area now called Ukraine, while the
others migrated via the Balkans to the Carpathian basin.
In the 9th century the Byzantine Empire became allied with the Pechenegs, using them to fend off other
nomadic tribes, among them the Magyars. This was a Roman ploy called "divide ét impera” (divide and
rule), playing off one enemy against the other. The Pechenegs were, in turn, threatened by other tribes,
including the Khazars which drove them further westward into the Magyar territorial holdings. In 894
A.D., the Bulgarians went to war against Byzantium. The following year Emperor Leo VI the Wise invoked
the help of the Magyars who sent an army under the leadership of Arpad's son, Levente, to attack Bulgaria.
Bulgarian Tzar Simeon quickly concluded a treaty with the Byzantine Empire and employed the Pechenegs to
eject the Hungarians from his land. The Pechenegs did that so successfully that the Hungarians were
forced to find refuge beyond the Carpathian mountains, entering modern-day Hungary in 896 A.D., with the
Pechenegs at their heels. Interestingly, by the 12thcentury the Pechenegs would be absorbed by other
nations and disappeared from history.
It is an interesting aside that one of the 7 chieftains who conquered the land with Arpad was called Horka,
and one of Horka's sons was Gyula. Thus, my name (and that of my son and Vallay grandson) goes back to
the very beginning of Hungarian history. The house of Arpad ruled for over 300 years and gave many
notable kings to the country.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
(
This map is in Sovereign States
..,,.
History of Europe
.....
Year 2000 A.D .
,)
.._.....
Year 1900 A.D .
German
Year 1800 A.D .
Ocean
Year 1700 A.D.
-
Year 1600 A.D.
Year 1500 A .D.
Year 1400 A.D.
Year 1300 A.D.
ObolnOH
"""'
\/"'"
-
Po.-.......
d;-,
llni.nn,
Year 1200 A.D.
Year 1100 A .D.
Year 1000 A .D.
Year 900 A .D.
Year 800 A.D.
700 A.D.
r 600 A.D.
Vear 500 A.D.
Year 400 A .D.
Year 300 A .D.
Year 200 A.D.
Year 100 A.D.
Year 1A .D.
Explanation
Map Legend
Bibliography 800
.....,·, ·- .,..
Europe Main Map at the Beginning of the Year 800
(,
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
Northwest
Northeast
4
THE MYTH OF THE "CSODASZARVAS'
Hungarians have plentiful legends about their ancestry. Some of them may contain "a kernel of historical
truth", writes Lendvai in his aforementioned book. The following is a direct quote from said book, page
14:
"According to an orally transmitted legend, the brothers Hunor and Magor, sons of the Scythian kings Gog
and Magog, pursuing a miraculous white stag during a hunt, arrived in the region north of the Sea of
Azov.* Having lost the trail of the animal, they caught sight during a subsequent excursion of the two
exquisitely beautiful daughters of Dula, King of the Alans. The brothers carried off and married the two
maidens. The offspring of these marriages are said to be the ancestors of the Huns and the Magyars."
•
The Sea of Azov, referenced above, refers to an inland sea (Lake Maeotis in ancient Greek)
situated off the southern shores of Ukraine, forming a northern extension of the Black Sea.
HISTORY
Much of early Hungarian history i s recorded in chronicles. One of those i s Anonymi Gesta Hungarorum
by Magister P, dating to around 1200 A.D.
For a hundred years the Magyar tribes ventured beyond the present borders and found their way into
Western Europe, including France and Spain. Their fierce horsemanship and fighting strategy was feared
all across the Continent, contemporary chroniclers labeling those nomadic "heathen barbarian" forces as
the scourge of Europe. Even to this day, the text of a Litany used in Church services contains the phrase:
11From the arrows of the Hungarians save us oh Lord." (De sagittis Hungarorum libera nos, Domine.)
KING STEPHEN and CHRISTIANITY 1000-1038
In 975 A.O. a son, by the name of Vajk, was born in Esztergom to tribal chief Geza and his wife Sarolta. Both
the parents and their son were exposed to the teachings of Catholic missionaries, notably of the Czech
Bishop Adalbert (956-997) who baptized them in the Catholic faith (see the segment on Hungarian Saints).
It is interesting to note that according to some sources, Sarolta, daughter of the Transylvanian Chief Gyula,
had been baptized in the Byzantine faith as a Greek-Catholic, and her husband, Geza, was a reluctant
Christian, still engaged in pagan rituals. In baptism Vajk took the name Stephen. Upon the death of Grand
Prince Geza his son, Stephen became king. He introduced (or more likely coerced on his countrymen)
Christianity and made it the country's official religion, finally settling the tribes down. As a reward for his
efforts on behalf of Christianity, in the year 1000 Stephen was given a crown, befitting a king, by Pope
Sylvester II. The crown was carried from Rome by the Italian Benedictine monk Gellert who had a mountain
named after him in today's Budapest. This crown was used for centuries to crown Hungarian kings and is
perhaps the most treasured symbol of the Hungarian nation. As an added benefit which Christianity had
brought with it was the switch from the runic-like script to the Latin alphabet which formed yet another tie
with Western Europe.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
5
Stephen created an ecclesiastical organization with 10 bishoprics (regions headed by bishops, overseen
by archbishops) and required each group of 10 villages to build a church. His civil administration was
based on counties (megye) headed by a steward (ispan) with an armed force of freemen in a fortress (var).
Those of us who would have loved to be present at the wedding of Stephen to Gizella (or Gisela),
daughter of Bavarian Prince Henry, would be disappointed as the ceremony took place in Germany
where Gisela was brought up in a convent. At the very tender age of 11 she got engaged to Stephen,
thus solidifying the relations between the two countries. I can just imagine what kind of shock it may
have been for the young bride to see this Hungarian warrior and his entourage arriving on horseback at
the Scheyern Castle! The records are silent about the difference in language and customs. King
Stephen brought Gisela back to Hungary in the company of several Bavarian knights and armed troops
which helped to strengthen Stephen's image as the new powerful head of the Hungarians, while they
kept Gisela company, providing familiar surroundings for her at the castle.
Stephen's ascension to the throne did not go smoothly. Some of the tribal chieftains like Koppany,
duke of Somogy county (the Lake Balaton area), claimed the rite of succession for themselves.
They also rebelled against the enforced Christianization of the country. The final solution was a
battle near the town of Veszprem which Stephen won with the help of knights and armed men from
Bavaria. Koppany was killed in that battle, his body quartered (!) and displayed in various regions as
an object lesson to warn the opposition. Yet, pockets of resistance still existed, one being in
Transylvania, then ruled by the King's uncle Gyu!a. Stephen led a campaign against him in 1003 and
won, incarcerating his uncle and his family. (Gyula escaped from prison and sought refuge in Poland.)
The coronation ceremony, which took place either at the end of the 1st, or the beginning of the 2nd
millennium, granted Stephen the legitimacy of a Christian monarch, readily accepted by his
Christian neighbor rulers. Stephen's brother-in-law, Henry II, became King of Germany in 1002 and
Holy Roman Emperor 9 years later. This guaranteed relative peace on Hungary's Western borders.
And the fact that Stephen gave his younger sister in marriage to Otto Orseolo, Doge of Venice and an
ally to the Byzantine Emperor, seems to have secured his peace with the Byzantine Empire. A
troubling uncertainty in Stephen's foreign policy concerned his relations over territorial claims with
Poland which resulted in a 4- year war with that country between 1014 and 1018. Also, he led his
armies against the Pechenegs, who had created trouble even for Prince Arpad. Stephen conducted
successful campaigns against them in Transylvania and assisted the Byzantine emperor in conquering
Bulgaria. In one memorable incident in 1030, Stephen's forces were able to defend Hungary's
Western borders against an invasion by the new German monarch, Conrad. They even pursued and
arrested him in Vienna, but released him in exchange for new lands (now Burgenland) granted by the
monarch to Hungary.
Stephen and Gisela had several children, all of whom predeceased their parents in infancy, including Emeric,
who was closest to the King. In desperation over the question of succession, he nominated his sister’s son,
Peter Orseolo of Venice, as his heir. This act of going outside the country for a successor infuriated some of
Stephen’s relatives, who then plotted several attempts on the king’s life.
Significantly, Stephen transferred the seat of his kingdom from Esztergom to Szekesfehervar, where he built
a cathedral, the ruins of which are still visible today. The king died on August 15, 1038, after offering his
country to the Virgin Mary. Recognizing his efforts toward the conversion of his countrymen to Christianity,
Pope Benedict XI canonized him in 1083, together with his son, Emeric and he is venerated as St. Stephen.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
6
When his tomb was opened, St. Stephen's body was found decomposed, except for his right hand which
was intact has been preserved for all future generations to venerate.
Opinion
We all agree that a nomadic lifestyle is not an optimum choice for nation building. Christianity served
Hungary well, settling them down, bringing Western culture into the Carpathian basin and elevating the
believers to the worship of God. Nevertheless, one tends to muse on the facts which surround the
conversion of Hungarians most often accompanied by violence in order to accept a faith totally foreign to
them. In the 21st century such violence is viewed with disdain as Moslems aim to force their set of beliefs
on their own people and their neighbors. We abhor the holy war foisted on innocents who do not share
the Moslem tenets, causing much suffering and bloodshed.
While we celebrate and venerate St. Stephen, one might stop to think of the horrors which resistance to
Christianity had caused. Are we, indeed, using two different sets of measures here? I would think that
blinding an opponent and quartering his body would not be categorized as a Christian act of faith. It may
be better to use the work of gentle missionaries to accomplish the Pope's objective, even if it may not be
rewarded by canonization.
Sadly, the Catholic Church used deplorable tactics in spreading, then enforcing the gentle tenets for which
Jesus Christ gave His life on the cross. I am sure the Arabs were surprised to see the Crusaders come to
punish them for "violating" the holy places by living there. In fact, the Crusaders did the Moslems a favor
by sending them to a place where 77 virgins would await them... And what kind of example did the
Church provide by tying Jean d'Arc to a stake and lighting the fire under her? The Inquisition cries out for
internal reforms in the Church, rather than external punishment in matters of faith! Let God be the judge
of that.
THE HOLY CROWN THEORY
The younger generation living today would probably pay little attention to the theory surrounding St.
Stephen's crown, but my generation and all the older generations held it sacred, having a major role in
Hungarian history. As one writer put it: when searching for a new ruler, the Hungarians were not seeking
a crown for a king, but a king for the Holy Crown.
The Holy Crown Theory (Szent Korona tan) was
drafted and published by the jurist Stephen Werboczy
in his book Tripartium 1517, Vienna. Initiated by King
Kalman (Coloman the Booklover 1095-1116), this theory
holds that the utmost ruler of Hungary is not the king
but the Holy Crown. Everything belongs to the Crown
as if it were a legal entity. Legal verdicts were declared
in the name of the Holy Crown, not the king.
Territories, such as Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Serbia, Bosnia and others, which later joined Hungary
were not absorbed into Hungary but became members of territories united with the Hungarian Holy
Crown. (NOTE: It may have facilitated the dismemberment of Hungary following World War I in the
Treaty of Trianon!)
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
Enticed by the unique nature and mystical adoration which is accorded to this national relic, let me
quote (or paraphrase) some aspects from Zsuzsa Lovag’s 1978 book “The Hungarian coronation
jewels” (Hungarian National Museum, Budapest).
“The Holy Crown represents divine power and symbolizes the entire kingdom and the entire Hungarian
nation. That is why it was so important to rescue and safeguard the crown in decisive historic periods,
because if there was no Holy Crown, there was no Hungary… This is the reason why King Bela IV
rescued it to the fortress of Klissa (in Croatia today) from the Tartar invasion of 1241; King Matthias
brought it back from Vienna for an astronomical price in 1463; Peter Perenyi hid it in his citadel of Fuzer
from the Ottoman invasion in 1526; Louis Kossuth dug it underground in an iron chest near Orsova (in
Romania today) after the surrender to the Habsburgs at Vilagos in 1848; and Ferenc Szalasi, the Arrow
Party leader rescued it to Austria from the invading Red Army and dug it underground in an oil barrel
in 1945.” - The U.S. Army seized control of the Holy crown after WWII and stored it at Fort Knox, KY,
finally returning it to Hungary then under Communist rule, in January 1978, which I had personally
approved of, although others faulted President Jimmy Carter for doing so. The argument behind my
stand was that the return of the Holy Crown to its rightful place in Hungary would establish a surrealistic
but historic “higher power” than the existing Communist regime, thus diminishing the controlling power
of the latter. And I had the opportunity to say something about that in one of the nation’s leading
newspapers!
In the May 7, 1998 edition of the Washington Post one of my “Letters to the Editor” got publish ed as
follows:
Joy Simonson’s April 13 letter, which appeared as an addendum to the March 19 Style article
“Hungarian Rhapsodizing” recounted a story she had heard about how the cross on top of the Holy
Crown of St. Stephen had been bent.
Let me first express my dismay at Ms. Simonson’s act of sacrilege: she admits having worn the Holy
Crown for some minutes in 1946 when it was in the custody of the U.S. military government in
Wiesbaden, Germany. The crown is a symbol of a Christian Hungarian government based on faith
and loyalty to ancient traditions. It is not a hat in the Easter parade. What kind of security did the
Americans provide for the Hungarians’ holiest relic if they permitted a passerby to put it on her head?
Second, the romanticized story she tells is far from the truth. Some think the Holy Crown may have
been damaged while being hidden from the Turks in the 16 th century, - or from the Tartar invasion in
the 13th century. The authoritative Revai Encyclopedia of 1915 states: “Following the extinction of the
ruling Arpad dynasty, Wenceslas of Bohemia grabbed the symbols of royalty including the Holy Crown,
in 1301. Three years later Wenceslas abdicated and passed the Crown to Otto of Bavaria, who was
pursued by other princes competing for the throne of Hungary. Otto had the crown packed into a
wooden crate. Regretfully, the item was lost in the hasty retreat from Prague to Bavaria and was only
found following an extensive search in a swamp in the area of today’s Fischamand, Austria. The cross
on top of the crown has been bent since that time.” Jules S. Vallay, Palmyra, VA.
My letter was read, among others, by Lt. Gen. George Szegö of Annapolis, MD, who was obviously of
Hungarian ancestry and who called me out of the blue to congratulate me on my intervention on behalf of
the Holy Crown. A sort of friendship would develop between us and we visited each other’s homes, - he
and his black lady friend staying overnight her at Lake Monticello, too. He kept up the correspondence even
while he moved to Dover, DE. But after his marriage to the woman, which we attended, they disappeared
from the horizon and he is presumed dead as he was of an advanced age even in 1998.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
8
And now a word or two about the makeup of the Holy Crown and the coronation jewel ry:
The crown consists of two separate parts: the lower circular crown, called the Greek crown (corona
gracea) and the upper crown called the Latin crown (corona latina). The lower circular crown was given
as a gift to the Hungarian king Geza I by the Byzantine emperor Michael Dukas in 1074 A.D. Made in the
goldsmith shops of the emperor's Court, the crown features enameled golden plates in alternating
sequence, representing Christ in Byzantine art, with archangels and saints flanking Jesus. There are
numerous precious stones and pearls decorating the crown. - It was the upper part of the crown which
was sent by Pope Sylvester II to King Stephen. It, too, features Christ and his apostles. The original cross
on top, which was said to be a relic holder of the cross of Jesus, was broken off, and was replaced by a
similar cross. To be sure, both crowns, assembled as a unit, date back to 1166.
The jewels used at a king's coronation also include the cloak, made of dark purple Byzantine
embroidered with golden thread. It is authenticated by the inscription: "Casula hec operata ét
ecclesiae Sanctae Mariae sitae in civitate Alba anno incarnacionis xpi MXXXI indiccione XIII a Stephano
et Gisla regina." (This chasuble was made in the 1031st year of the reincarnation of Christ, in the
indiction, by king Stephen and queen Gisela and was given to the Saint Mary abbey at Fehervar.)
silk,
data
rege
13th
The crystal scepter, symbolizing the authority and jurisdiction of the kingdom, the silver orb and a sword
complete the coronation jewelry. Regrettably, the original of these last three items were lost but the
substitutes being from around the 14th century they still represent ancient relics.
HUNGARIAN SAINTS
Stephen, the first king of Hungary, was born in Esztergom in the year 975 A.D. As noted above, his father,
Geisa (or Geza) had already converted to Christianity, although the general Hungarian population was still
pagan. When Stephen became king, he invited foreign (mostly German and Italian) priests to teach
Christian ethics to his people. Stephen established 10 bishoprics under the primacy of the bishop of
Esztergom in the big bend of the Danube River.
Stephen encountered much resistance to the institution of Christianity, notably from Chiefs Kupa and
Koppany, but Stephen used force to put down the revolt. Stephen died in 1038 A.D. and was canonized
by Pope Benedict XI in 1083. He is revered as St. Stephen and his right hand, drawn into a tight first, is
miraculously preserved. It is the most sacred religious treasure of the Hungarians. His feast day is August
20.
Emeric (lmre) was the son of King Stephen and Queen Gisella, daughter of Kaiser Henrik (Henry the
Wrangler, Duke of Bavaria). lmre was brought up and educated by priests (mostly by the Benedictine
monk Gellért) and guided by his father's book of admonitions on ethics and governance {see "lntelmek").
At his father's behest he was married to a foreign princess, but both of them remained virgins until their
death. lmre/Emeric is said to have died in a wild boar hunt and thus could not carry on his father's work. He
was canonized together with his father, in 1083. His feast day is November 5.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
9
László, or Ladislaus, was born in Poland in 1041 A.D. the son of the Polish-Hungarian King Bela I. He
became king of Hungary at the age of 36 and ruled until 1095. He devoted himself to the affirmation of
the Christian faith in Hungary and founded several new bishoprics. Several miracles are connected with
his name. He was nominated to be the commander of the first crusade to liberate the Holy Land, but
died before taking command. He was canonized in 1198. His feast day is June 27.
Elizabeth, daughter of King Andrew 11, was born in 1207 and was married to King Louis of Thuringia, the
commander of the second crusade. She suffered many insults and harsh treatment at the hands of the
German Court. She was known for carrying out much charitable works for the poor. Her husband's court
questioned her secret missions and asked what she was carrying in her apron. Not wanting to disclose
the food she carried for the poor, Elizabeth prayed to God and said she was carrying roses. When she was
forced to open her apron, the King was astounded to see red roses in the middle of winter. Elizabeth died
in 1231 and was canonized by Pope Gregory IX. She is still lovingly venerated. Her feast day is November
19.
Margaret, daughter of King Bela IV, was born in 1243. During Bela's reign hordes of Tartars invaded
Hungary and devastated it for 2 years. The queen vowed to offer her daughter to the service of God if the
Tartars would withdraw. When that came to be, Margaret, at the age of 4, was sent to a convent. The king
had a cloister built on the island in the Danube River where Margaret entered the life of a nun. Having lived
a life of ascetism, she lived only to the age of 28 and was canonized by Pope Pius II. The island in the Danube
was named after her. The Hungarian novelist Geza Gardonyi, wrote up her life in "lsten rabjai"
(Captives of God), one of my favorite novels. Her feast day is January 19.
Hungary had given several other men and women to the world whose exemplary life elevated them to
sainthood or beatification. Among them we celebrate King Bela IV’s daughter blessed Jolanta who was St.
Margaret's sister, founder of the Clarissa nuns. - St. Hedvig was the daughter of King Louis the Great of
Hungary, married to the King of Poland. She is buried in Cracow and was recently canonized.
Blessed Vilmos Apor, born into a Baronial family in Transylvania, he became bishop of the city of Gyor.
Upon the approach of the Russian troops in WWII, he opened the bishopry to local women for protection
against the marauding soldiers. A Russian officer demanded access to the women Apor was hiding. When
the bishop refused, he was shot and killed. Pope John Paul II beatified Vilmos Apor in 1997.
Although not of Hungarian blood, we certainly are indebted to St. Adalbert, Bishop of Prague (956-997),
who spread the faith during his travels to several countries in Central Europe. On one of his visits to
Hungary, he baptized Chief Geza and his son Vajk (the later St. Stephen) and was instrumental in the
conversion of Hungarians to Christianity. Adalbert died suffering martyrdom in his home country and was
canonized by Pope Sylvester II in 999 A.D.
Special ties connect us to the Italian Benedictine monk St. Gerard Sagredo (980-1046) whom Hungarians
know as St. Gellért, educator and spiritual guide to St. Emeric. He was charged with delivering Pope
Sylvester's gift of the crown to King Stephen. In September, 1046 he suffered martyrdom in a pagan
uprising. He was stuffed in a spiked barrel and hurled to his death off the mountain which now bears his
name. He is commemorated by a statue at the foot of the Elizabeth bridge in Budapest. St. Gellert was
canonized in 1083 by Pope Gregory VII and is considered one of the patron saints of Hungary. His feast day
is September 24.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
10
I had written extensively about Blessed Gizella, wife of St. Stephen ("In translation", March & April 2008
issues, pages 80, 81& 84, 85). She was the daughter of Bavarian Prince Henrik, born in 984 in Regensburg.
At the tender age of 11 she was betrothed to Stephen, heir to the Hungarian throne. After the death of
Stephen Gizella was coerced by subsequent rulers to leave Hungary, together with her Bavarian
entourage. She returned to her home country and is buried in the chapel of the Niedernburg cloister in
Passau, Germany.
Preliminary steps have been taken to proceed with the canonization of Joseph Cardinal Mindszenty,
Hungary's Primate during the post-WWII Communist era.
THE ÁRPÁD DYNASTY
The House of Arpad, whose descendants included King Stephen I, ruled to the end of the 13th century.
Succession to the Hungarian throne was somewhat troublesome. When King Stephen's son, Emeric, died in
a hunting accident, the king's cousin Vazul, had the strongest claim to the throne. As I pointed out in my
essay "Cause and Effect", dated August, 2011, in the early 11th century there was no recognized law of
succession in Hungary. Oxford Professor C. A. Macartney, in his book "Hungary, a short history'',states that
while the Arpad family honored the principle of "senioratus", most rulers passed over senior relatives in
favor of a son, although "primogenitur'' (favoring the first-born) was not officially in vogue. But Vazul would
not convert to Christianity and for his resistance he was punished by being blinded and his three sons
were exiled. King Stephen's choice fell to his nephew Peter, but it was a poor choice.
PETER ORSEOLO (1038-1041 & 1044-1046)
King Stephen turned to a son of one of his unnamed sisters. His name was Peter, born in Venice in 1010
A.D., the only son of Otto Orseolo, Doge of Venice. When the Venetians rose up and deposed the father,
Peter went to Hungary where his uncle appointed him to command the King's army. Simon of Keza wrote in
"The deeds of Hungarians": Soon after being crowned the King of Hungary, "Peter threw aside every trace of
the forbearance befitting a monarch's majesty and in consort with Germans and Latins raged with Teutonic
fury, treating the nobles of the kingdom with contempt and devouring the wealth of the land." He
introduced new taxes and seized Church revenues. In other words, he was no friend of the Hungarians and
conducted a violent reign for 3 years after which he lost the throne to his rebellious subjects.
Deposed, he fled to Austria and asked Bavarian ruler Emperor Henry Ill to help reinstate him on the
throne. Henry attacked in two successive campaigns in 1042 and again in 1044, defeating the interim king
Aba Samuel's army. Peter Orseolo was reinstated to the throne. (The decisive battle was fought near the
city of Gyor in June of 1044.)
SAMUEL ABA (1041-1044)
Under King Stephen, Samuel Aba acted as the palatine (elector) of the Court and member of the royal council.
His family was from the mountain region of Matra in the north and ruled the people of Khazar, who joined
Arpad's Hungarian tribes before their arrival in the Carpathian basin. Aba is said to be a descendant of
the Khazars. His origin and first name suggests.that he was born to a family which was Judaic. In
conflicting historical writings, it is said that Samuel Aba converted to Christianity when he married one
of King Stephen’s sisters.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
11
When Peter Orseolo was ejected from Hungary, the ruling lords elected Samuel Aba to be their king. It
was not a happy selection as Aba socialized more with the peasantry than with the nobles. He introduced
new taxes on the nobility while relieving the peasantry from financial burdens. The nobles resented this
and plotted to kill him. The king got wind of the conspiracy and had many of the nobility executed without
trial. It came in handy, then, that Emperor Henry Ill should attack Hungary in 1044 and succeed in
reinstating Peter Orseolo to the throne. It is not clear whether Samuel Aba lost his life on the order of the
new king,or whether he was seized and murdered by the locals.
@@@
Lajos Nemeth, the well-known 2nd Avenue confectioner in New York City, passed this on to me during Mass
at St. Stephen's while I was trying to keep a straight face playing the organ:
Samuel Aba or Aba Samuel as the Hungarians prefer to say, kept molesting his wife in the conjugal bed.
The Queen had enough of his pestering and said to the king: "Hagyd abba, Samuel!" - the equivalent of
11
leave me alone, Samuel." Obviously, this is without historical merit.
@@@
Peter Orseolo’s second term was not a happy one. With Emperor Henry Ill's help he was restored to the
throne in Szekesfehervar, however, he remained unpopular in wide circles in Hungary. Bishop Gerard,
Bishop of Csanad, invited Vazul's children to come home after 15 years of exile. Upon their return, they
asked the king to join them for a conference which was a secret plot to kill him. When Peter showed up in
Szekesfehervar in 1046, he was captured and blinded in a nearby fortification where the king sought
refuge. He died in the late 1050s and was buried in the Cathedral of Pecs.
ANDREW (ENDRE) I (1046 -1060)
St. Stephen's cousin Vazul had three sons, Andrew, Levente and Bela. They were innocent victims of a 15year exile ordered by King Stephen as punishment for their father's refusal to embrace Christianity, but
also to secure the kingdom for Stephen's choice in Peter Orseolo. Their exile was spent in the Court of
Duke Oldfich of Bohemia and later in Poland and even later in Russia. Bela married a daughter of their
Polish host Mieszko and remained in Poland, but Andrew and Levente continued in their wanderings.
Finally, they decided to return to Hungary where a pagan revolt had broken out. The pagans demanded to
allow the people to live according to the rites of the pagans, to throw off the Christian faith and to worship
idols (says the Illuminated Chronicle). The pagans captured and killed Bishop Gerard who had invited the
brothers to return to Hungary. Andrew had married Anastasia, the daughter of the Grand Prince of Kiev
and embraced Christianity. Levente, however, remained a pagan.
Andrew was crowned in Szekesfehervar in 1046 and restored Christianity as the country's official faith,
making it a capital crime to practice paganism. Andrew's wife, Anastasia, gave birth to a son named
Solomon in 1053. Although his brother Bela (still in Poland) was his senior, Andrew wanted to secure
Solomon's succession which created a constitutional crisis when Andrew suffered a paralyzing stroke
in 1057.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
12
Andrew had his 4-year-old son crowned and had the child "engaged" to Judith, daughter of German Emperor
Henry Ill.
Bela, who had seniority continued his claim to succeed his brother. He returned from Poland to Hungary
with a Polish army, while Andrew was supported by Bohemian, Bavarian and Saxon troops. The battle was
lost by Andrew who was trampled by horses and wagons in the battlefield east of the river Tisza. His
supporters took him to Zirc (which is where today the Abbey of the Cistercian Order is located), but died of
his injuries and was buried in the Tihany Abbey, a Benedictine monastery established by King Andrew in 1055.
His infant son, Solomon, and many in his entourage relocated to Germany fearing Bela's revenge.
However, Bela did no harm to Solomon and to the nobles who emigrated with him.
(I had the privilege of visiting King Andrew's tomb as a child as well as later as an adult returning for a
visit following WWII. In my youth the echo of Tihany was a tourist attraction as people climbed the hill up
to the Abbey and whatever they said or yelled to the wall in the village opposite the church echoed
clearly, delighting the visitor. In later years that was no longer the case, but the memories remain.)
Béla was crowned king on December 6, 1060.
BÉLA I (1060 -1063)
It is interesting to note that Bela's baptismal name was Adalbert. He was more than 40 years old when
he returned to Hungary to claim the throne from his brother, Andrew, or Endre in Hungarian. At first,
Andrew was generous to his brother by granting him large territories which nowadays lie in Slovakia and
Romania. He was given the title of Duke and even had money (half-denars) printed in his name, reading
Bela Dux.
When Andrew fathered a son (Solomon) in 1053, and had him crowned as the future king of Hungary, the
relations between the two brothers soured. To keep the peace at least outwardly, Andrew invited Bela to the
manor of Tiszavarkony for a conference where he offered him a free choice between the crown or a sword.
Forewarned that choosing the crown will also mean his assassination, Bela falsely chose the sword but
escaped to Poland from which to return in 1060 with Polish troops to claim the throne. Bela won against his
brother in the second battle fought, where Andrew died of his battle injuries. Bela became king on December
6, 1060.
King Béla very astutely became a protector, not a jealous persecutor of his brother's child and his followers,
which encouraged many of them to return to Hungary. Bela reformed and strengthened the currency by
introducing coins of the purest silver. He also changed the weekly "piac", or market from Sundays to
Saturdays and may have antagonized the Jewish merchants who observed the Sabbath. Bela also
suppressed a pagan riot in Szekesfehervar in 1061. Remarkably, paganism still had adherents, some 60
years after Christianity was forcefully introduced in Hungary and had to be subdued with military force.
The story of young Solomon continues, however, when German princes threatened to launch an attack
on Hungary to restore Solomon to the throne. Béla, surprisingly, did not put up great resistance and
contemplated to abdicate in favor of his nephew, provided he could regain his former estates or
"ducatus." His plan was not carried out when, very ignominiously, his throne broke and collapsed under
him at his manor at Domos. Béla suffered serious injuries of which he died in September of 1063.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
13
I would like to inject a thought about Bela's family. As pointed out earlier, while in exile, he married the
daughter of King Mieszko II of Poland in 1033 and they had two sons, Geza and Ladislaus, born in Poland,
who would later become kings of Hungary (in 1074 and 1077, respectively). We will come across their story
later on in this review. Bela and his wife had a third son, Lampert, born in Hungary as well as 5 daughters.
When Bela died of his injuries from a collapsed throne, his three sons, Geza, Ladislaus and Lampert sought
refuge in Poland, while Solomon ascended to the throne.
SOLOMON (Salamon) (1063-1074)
As noted before, Solomon was the second child and eldest son of King Andrew I of Hungary and his wife
Anastasia of Kiev. Circumstances, as outlined above, forced him initially to live in emigration, not being able
to return to claim the crown from King Bela until 1063. Solomon used this occasion as well to marry Judith,
the sister of Henry IV, King of Germany. Judith was 6 years his senior and troubles immediately started
when the new wife and Solomon's mother, Anastasia, became the young king's chief advisers.
Initially Solomon had no trouble with his cousins and conducted a few military campaigns against the
Czechs and other enemies with the cousins' help, but their relationship deteriorated in the 1070s as Bela's
son Geza (see two paragraphs up) became an aspirant to the throne. Solomon and Geza battled for the
prize and Solomon lost the battle at Mogyorod in March, 1074, leaving him just a slice of Western Hungary
(in the area of Pressburg, today's Bratislava, Slovakia). Eventually he found it necessary to abdicate in
favor of his cousin Geza (see below). Solomon continued to vie for the throne and tried to seek an alliance
with the Pechenegs, but he died in a raid in the Byzantine empire in 1087.
And here is a little gossip about the King and Queen's relations: the marriage remained childless. In fact,
both Solomon and his wife, Judith took the liberty of consorting with lovers. They separated in 1075 and
Judith went back to Germany. Upon Solomon's death in Bulgaria, Judith married a Polish Duke.
GEZA I (1074 -1077)
Geza was the eldest son of King Bela I. (Our earlier stories relate the fact that Geza was born in Poland.)
Geza's baptismal name was Magnus . Before becoming king, he was the administrator of one of his
father's duchies with the right of coinage which bore his name as Dux Magnus. Other coins bore the name
Panonai, as a reference to the time when Pannonia was under Roman administration.
For his coronation the Emperor Michael VII Doukas sent Geza a gold and enamel diadem. According to
Wikipedia, this "splendid work of art became the lower part of the Holy Crown of Hungary by the end of the
12th century". Geza was crowned with this diadem in the Spring of 1075. Geza married a niece of a close
advisor to Emperor Michael VII. (He was married twice, but the ancestry of his first wife, Sophia, is unknown.)
Historians, among them the respected Gyula Kristo, believe that Geza fathered 6 children and the surviving
two boys were from his first wife, Sophia.
As related above, Geza, at first, was supporting Solomon, but later aspired to the throne and defeated the
king at Mogyorod, eventually forcing Solomon to abdicate. It seems that Hungarian royal history is full of
battling for the possession of the crown rather than carrying on the business of the country. In Geza's
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
14
case all this was concentrated within 3 years of his rule. After Christmas Mass in 1076 Geza became
gravely ill and eventually passed away in April of 1077, leaving the throne to his brother, Ladislaus.
LADISLAUS I (Szent Lal szlo' ) (1077 -1095)
He was the second son of King Bela I,born in Poland in exile. His original name was Vladislav and he was
brought up as a Pole. As the pages of history turned, he returned to Hungary and eventually took the reins
over from his brother, King Geza. (Although Geza had sons, they were still minors, hence the accession of
Ladislaus to the throne.)
After much haggling with his cousin Solomon, the former king of Hungary, Solomon finally acknowledged
the legitimacy of Ladislaus in 1081. And yet, he continued undermining his rule by conspiring with the
German king Henry IV. Ladislaus had enough and had Solomon arrested and imprisoned, charged with
conspiracy. Yet, when St. Stephen (and St. Emeric) were canonized, Ladislaus felt compelled to set
Solomon free. Very cleverly, Ladislaus made an alliance with King Henry IV's opponents which forced
Solomon to give up on his plans to re-take the crown. As we read above, Solomon died in a battle in the
Byzantine Empire and Ladislaus was able to consolidate his power.
Ladislaus is mentioned in several Hungarian legends as a saintly ruler. In the major chronicle about
Ladislaus he is said to have rescued a Christian maiden from being abducted by a Cuman or Pecheneg
warrior in the battle of Kerles (now Kirales, Romania}. The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle now claims
that the maiden did not really want to be rescued and had "strong carnal love" for his abductor, pleading
with Ladislaus not to kill him. But after wrestling with the abductor and "unmanning him" in the process
(whatever that meant), Ladislaus killed the Pecheneg and released the girl.
This event is commemorated in a painting on the walls of Mathias Coronation Church in Budapest.
Another legend, while Ladislaus was still just an advisor to King Geza, concerns the miraculous appearance of
a white stag with many candles burning (!) between his horns. The stag ran into the woods and halted
meaningfully in a clearing. Soldiers tried to shoot it with arrows, but the animal leapt into the Danube
(this was near the town of Vac), never to be seen again. Ladislaus became convinced that this was a sign, an
angel,sent by God to have a church built to honor the Virgin Mary. Indeed, the king agreed to have a
monastery built at that spot.
Having been proclaimed king, Ladislaus had two books of laws written, containing "draconian measures"
to defend private property. Offenders would be hanged, or if the offender should take refuge in a church,
he would be blinded. "A freeman who steals a goose or a hen shall lose one eye and shall restore what he
has stolen."
A year or two after accessing the throne, in 1078 or 1079, Ladislaus married Adelhaid, the daughter of
Rudolf of Rheinfelden, elected by German princes against Henry IV.
The Holy Dexter
Ladislaus worked on the Vatican to have King Stephen I (and his son) canonized. The ceremony would be a
political act to reaffirm his and the country's commitment to Christianity. The ceremony took place in 1083
under curious circumstances.
Ladislaus wanted to have King Stephen's body moved from
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
15
Szekesfehervar to a Benedictine Monastery. Chronicles attest to the fact that for 3 days, no matter
how they tried, they were unable to open the tomb to access Stephen's body. In the end a religious
message was given to the King to release Solomon from prison as the price for lifting the stone covering
Stephen's tomb. When Solomon was released from prison, it took no effort whatsoever to lift the
heavy marble covering and accessing Stephen's body. (This segment was taken from Hartvic's book: Life
of King Stephen of Hungary.)
To everyone's consternation,the king's right hand and wrist were found
intact and became known as the Szent Jobb, or Holy Dexter.
The following is taken verbatim from the above-quoted book on St. Stephen:
"In Bihar county an abbey was dedicated (to the veneration of the relic.)
The relic was kept for centuries in the monastery with the exception of the
Mongol invasion of 1241/42 when it was transferred to Ragusa (today's
Dubrovnik, Croatia). The Holy Dexter was taken to Szekesfehervar around
1420. Following the occupation of the central territories of the Kingdom of
Hungary by the Ottoman Turks in the middle of the 16th century, the relic
was kept in many places, including Bosnia, Ragusa and Vienna. It was
returned to Hungary in 1771when Queen Maria Theresa donated it to the
cloister of the Sisters of Loreto in Buda. The relic was kept in the St. Sigismund
Chapel in the Buda Castle between around 1900 and 1944, (then) in a cave near Salzburg in Austria in
1944 and 1945, by the sisters of Loreto in Buda between 1945 and 1950, and in the St. Stephen's Basilica
in Budapest since 1950."
During 1950 and 1987 its celebration was forbidden by the Communist authorities.
Ladislaus got involved in international affairs, too. He generously offered the assistance of 20,000 knights
in the conflict between the Germans' choice of Rudolf I of Swabia against King Henry IV. (Understandably
when considering that Ladislaus' wife, Adelaide, was the daughter of Duke Rudolf!) Mercifully,
intervention did not become necessary. But Ladislaus took action at the request of his sister, Helen, the
widow of Croatia's King Demetrius, to remedy the conflict between factions of Croatian noblemen upon
the death of their kin. Ladislaus,announced his intentions of occupying "Sclavonia" in 1091 and
appointed his nephew Almos (King Almos?) to administer the country. In another venture, he prevented
an incursion by Ruthenians in what is now Carpathian Ukraine. Yet, no Russian chronicles refer to this
military action in the Carpathian mountains.
Today's advocates of the separation of church and state would be shocked to learn that Ladislaus dabbled
in Vatican politics as well. First, he recognized Viktor Ill as the legitimate Pope against Clement Ill who
had been elected pope on Henry IV's initiative. Later, Pope Urban II wrote that the Hungarians "left the
shepherds of their salvation", meaning that the Hungarian king joined the anti-pope forces. Ladislaus
opposed the Gregorian Reform of the independence of the Church and maintained that the church leaders
should be obedient to the king.
The king and his wife had two daughters, but no sons. Therefore, succession to the throne was
I
legitimately up to one of King Geza l's two sons: Coleman or Almos. The latter was already named by
Ladislaus to be the king of Croatia, so Coloman was expected to take over, despite the king's preference
for Almos. Ladislaus was preparing a campaign against Bohemia to advance the cause of his sister's sons,
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
16
Svatopluk and Otto. In the midst of military preparations, Ladislaus was informed that Coloman entered
Hungary accompanied by Polish troops. Upon hearing the news, the elderly kind died suddenly. He was
buried in the Abbey of Somogyvar.
Hungarians venerate Ladislaus as a god-fearing monarch who is to be held in high esteem. Upon his death
the nation mourned him officially for 3 years and prayed for him to be declared a saint. Several miracles
supported this desire. When a pestilence broke out in the country, Ladislaus prayed for a remedy and
shot an arrow into the air at random which hit an herb which turned out to be the antidote for the illness.
Furthermore, during a military action against Pecheneg raiders, the enemy scattered gold coins to deter
the pursuers from catching them. Ladislaus prayed for victory and the coins turned to stone, losing their
attraction for the King's troops which caught and defeated the enemy and freed their captives.
When I was a high school student in Hungary, I also heard about another legend about Ladislaus. It was
said that during a military campaign his troops were very thirsty, but because of drought they could not get
a drop of water anywhere. Ladislaus then prayed for a spring to satisfy the thirst of his troops. He thrust his
sword against a big rock which split and lo and behold fresh water poured out of the cut which the king's
sword made.
Ladislaus was canonized on June 27, 1192 and is venerated as a Saint.
COLOMAN (Konyves Kalman) (1095 - 1116)
In Hungarian, the name is always preceded by "konyves", meaning book-lover. Coloman was King
Ladislaus’ nephew, indeed, one of the most educated rulers of his age. Although he was the older son
of King Geza I and should have been the first choice to succeed Ladislaus (who had no sons),
nevertheless, Ladislaus wanted Almos, the younger son, to succeed him on the throne. Coloman was
destined to be a bishop, hence he received an extraordinary education. He was appointed to the
bishopry of Eger (or possibly Nagyvarad), but Coloman did not want to live an ecclesiastical life. When
Ladislaus officially declared Almos to be his heir, Coloman escaped to Poland to the court of Duke
Wladyslaw Herman who supported his claim to the Hungarian throne.
When Ladislaus died, Coloman returned to Hungary followed by the support of Polish troops. This was
sufficient to persuade Almos to acknowledge Coloman as the rightful heir, but in the deal he received
what was called "tercia pars Regni", or a third of the kingdom to govern. A sweet deal, indeed. Coloman
was crowned in the spring of 1096.
Immediately he ran into a problem with the armies of the Crusaders who caused quite a disruption in the
country as they transited. Additionally, much pillaging occurred by invading German troops who ravaged
the northern county of Nitra and the Transdanubian (Dunantul) counties. Although Coloman was able to
evict those armies, the king and the fortress of Moson was under siege for six weeks. So much for the
“great" Crusaders.
Coloman had to deal with two outside forces. One was led by the Holy Roman Emperor, and the other by
the Pope. Coloman wanted to establish good relations with the Pope, so in the spring of 1097 he married
Felicia, a daughter of Count Roger of Sicily, who was a close ally of the popes. I doubt that Felicia was too
happy with this arrangement, because it is said that Coloman had an unspecified physical deformity.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
17
The Hungarian king was one of the most "learned" individuals among the leaders of Europe in his time.
His Court was also the seat of higher learning and literature. Coloman led the prelates and barons in the
synod of Tarcal to change some of Ladislaus' laws, making them less severe in some cases, but more severe
in others. One of those laws had to do with legislation concerning the Jews and Moslems. Let us
remember that a thousand years prior to Coloman's time Jews were dispersed throughout Europe and
North Africa when, in 70 A.D. Jerusalem was destroyed. Jews became exiles from their homeland
wherever they settled. Their religion allowed lending money and collecting interest for it, whereas it was
largely forbidden and considered sinful for Christians. Money begets its own problems. Lending and
trying to collect made Jews unpopular. And when the Crusaders returned from the Holy Land, Christians
began to see the Jews as directly responsible for the martyrdom of Jesus. Atrocities against Jewry took
place shortly thereafter.
Co!oman was responsible for a long lasting relationship between Hungary and Croatia, as he had himself
crowned as the King of Croatia, and later that of Dalmatia, which he seized and subdued by force. His other
military ventures, such as the one against Bohemia and the siege against Przemysl in Southeastern Poland,
fizzled out.
Coloman continued having to deal with his brother, Almos. When Coloman had his son, Stephen crowned
in 1105, Almos led an intra-family rebellion. Almos went to ask for help from the Holy Roman Emperor
Henry IV, but the Emperor was busy dealing with his own son's rebellion against him. Almos was forced
to return to Hungary and asked for Coloman's pardon.
Almos traveled to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Coloman took advantage of his brother's absence
and occupied the Duchy which Almos governed. Upon Almos' return from the Holy Land, he found his
Duchy being incorporated into the king's domain and asked Henry V, the newly elected Holy Roman
Emperor to come to his aid. Henry V laid siege to Pozsony (today's Bratislava) in Bohemia. In response,
Coloman sought the help of Polish Duke Boleslav, who attacked Bohemia..Ultimately, Coloman and Almos
made peace but Almos never got his duchy back.
And here the story gets morbid. In 1112 Coloman married Eufemia of Kiev (no word as to what may have
happened to his first wife, Felicia). Eufemia was found involved in adultery and was sent back to Kiev
where she gave birth to a son named Boris, whom Coloman never acknowledged as his own son. Still
worried about the succession to the throne, Coloman ordered to have Almos and his infant son, Bela,
blinded in order to secure the throne for his own son, Stephen. In late 1115 the Republic of Venice
attacked Coloman's precious dependency, Dalmatia, which the king was no longer able to rebuff.
Coloman died on February 3, 1116, leaving the succession to the throne open for his son, Stephen.
ODDITIES OF ROYAL SUCCESSION
Based on what we have learned so far about early Hungarian history is that much blood was shed probably
unnecessarily to defend the rights, - or presumed rights, - of the occupants of the Hungarian throne.
Military campaign were conducted not only to defend (or expand) the country's borders, but also to
dissuade other principal players from claiming the crown.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
18
Hungary's first king, Stephen, died without a family heir because his only surviving son died in a hunting
accident. King Stephen should have rightfully passed the crown on to his closest blood relative, but since
cousin Vazul was still a heathen he could not wear the Apostolic Crown. Round One: king Stephen and son
Emeric dead, no direct descendent. .
Stephen chose his sister's son, Peter Orseolo of Venice, who favored the foreigners entrenched in the
Court rather than the Hungarian nobility. I n C o u r t , Peter behaved "with shameful and unbridled lust"
(Simon Keza: The Deeds of the Hungarians) assaulting the wives and daughters of the Hungarians
whenever the king was away. "No one at the time could feel certain of the chastity of his wife or daughter
in the face of importunity of Peter's courtiers."
That was enough to depose Peter who fled to Austria. In 1041The Hungarian nobles elected a brother-inlaw of King Stephen to be their king. Aba Samuel was the husband of King Stephen's sister, but was not
even of pure Hungarian ancestry. Instead, he was a descendant of Cuman or Khazar chieftains, peoples
who had joined the Magyars before their arrival in the Carpathian basin. According to historian Gyula
Kristo, Samuel's Khazar origin and his first name suggest that he was of a family which adhered to Judaism.
(Aba Samuel is said to have converted to Christianity before marrying Stephen's sister.)
But Peter Orseolo returned in 1044 for a second term with the help of Emperor Henry Ill. Aba Samuel
escaped from the battlefield near Gyor, but Peter's supporters captured and murdered him. Round Two:
king Aba Samuel is dead. Peter's second rule didn't last long. In 1046 Vazul's exiled sons returned to
Hungary which, in part, caused a pagan uprising which forced Peter to flee again. He was caught on the
border, was blinded and killed. Round Three: king Peter is dead.
The Hungarians next elected the middle son of the pagan chief Vazul by the name of Andrew (Endre) who
had just returned from 15 years of exile in Bohemia, together with his older brother Bela and younger
brother Levente. Andrew had converted to Christianity and dealt heavily with the pagan uprising in
Hungary. Andrew suffered a stroke while in power. To ensure the continuity of succession, he had his
child, Solomon, crowned and arranged Solomon's engagement to Judith, sister of the new German
monarch, Henry IV.
Andrew's brother, Bela, had no intention of renouncing his prime claim to the throne based on his age.
He sought the military aid of Duke Boleslaus of Poland and with his support returned to Hungary to meet
his brother on the battlefield. Andrew lost the battle and suffered severe wounds. Seized by Bela's troops,
he was taken to Zirc, where he died of neglecting his wounds. Round Four: king Andrew is dead. His son,
Solomon, was taken to Germany by German knights.
Bela was crowned in 1060. Most historians agree that Bela was the son of Vazul and his concubine. Bela
reigned for 3 years and planned to abdicate when German princes led an army invading Hungary in support
of Andrew's son, Solomon. Sitting on his throne, the wooden structure collapsed, killing the king. Round
Five: king Bela dead in an accident.
The next king, Solomon, acceded to the throne with the help of German help, but had an ongoing conflict
with his cousin Geza who wanted to take the crown from him. In the battle of Mogyorod in 1074 Solomon
was beaten and gave up two-thirds of his country, while Geza was proclaimed king and ruled for 3 years.
Solomon was first imprisoned in Visegrad, then relased on the order of his cousin Ladislaus because
nobody could open the grave of St. Stephen on his canonization until Solomon was imprisoned. Solomon
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
19
fled from Hungary and joined the Cumans and Pechenegs in a battle against the Byzantine Empire where,
according to one report he died, but according to another report he passed the remainder of his life in
pilgrimage and prayer, dying in Pula (or Pola) on the lstrian peninsula in 1087. Round Six: King Solomon
dead of physical or spiritual wounds.
After only 3 years on the throne, Geza died in April of 1077. Round Six: king dead of exhaustion. His brother,
Ladislaus was then proclaimed king.
Ladislaus lived a good Christian life and had several miraculous events attributed to him. He added
Croatia to his empire, but had disagreements with the Vatican. Since he had no sons, his nephews
Coloman and Almos, sons of King Geza, expected to inherit the throne. He named Almos the king of
Croatia, while Coloman recruited Polish military help to overtake the throne from Ladislaus. When
Ladislaus was informed in July, 1095 that Coloman crossed the borders into Hungary at the head of Polish
troops, he died suddenly. Round Seven: King Ladislaus dead of a heart attack. He was canonized in June,
1192.
Coloman, the book-lover, received an education in preparation for entering the religious life. Instead,
Coloman escaped to Poland and returned to claim the throne which had been promised by Ladislaus to
his brother, Almos. Coleman forced Almos to accept an agreement acknowledging Coloman's right to the
throne in exchange for a third of the kingdom of Hungary and financial support (appanage) from the king.
To further secure the throne for his lineage, Coloman had his son, Stephen, crowned. In a dastardly act,
to make sure that Stephen would accede to the throne, Coloman had Almos and his infant son, Bela,
blinded. The sad part of the story is that Coloman, who ordered this atrocity, was the nephew of the
saintly King Ladislaus who would eventually attain canoniization under the name of Szent Laszlo. The
irony is that the blind Bela would eventually be crowned and would rule for 10 years starting in 1131.
Coloman died in February of 1116 and was buried in Szekesfehervar, next to St. Stephen. Round
Eight: King Coloman dead of old age and the memory of his dastardly act.
There are a few more curious cases in royal succession which I cannot let pass. The story of Charles I
(1310 to 1342) is equally fascinating. This period in Hungarian history is known as the "interregnum". In
the first decade of the 14th century a somewhat chaotic situation existed in Hungary. Following the end
'
of the Arpa d dynasty there happened to be at least two contenders for the throne, - all of them without
real authority or legitimacy to govern. In 1301 two "children" competed: one was Charles Robert, the 13year-old grandson of Anjou King Charles II and the 12-year-old Vence!, or Wenceslaus, the son of
Bohemian (Czech} king Wenceslaus II. The third one happened to be Mary, a daughter of King Stephen V
of Hungary and sister of King Ladislaus IV of Hungary. After much haggling,Mary transferred her claim to
her eldest son, Charles Martel ,heir to the Kingdom of Naples, but Charles died in 1295 and the claim was
"inherited" by the child Charles Robert.
.
I know this gets too involved, but bear with me to sort out who is who and what i s what.
Charles Robert was supported by the Papacy and the Church leadership in Hungary as his mother Maria,
the Hungarian wife of the Anjou king was the daughter of King Stephen V. Vencel, or Wenceslaus, on the
other hand, was the nominee of most of the Barons of the Hungarian nobility. The stakes were high,so the
supporters of Charles didn't waste any time. They sent a delegation to Naples, inviting Charles to
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
20
Hungary. Upon his arrival they took him to Esztergom where the Archbishop Gregory Bicskei crowned
Charles with a substitute crown since the original Holy Crown was in the possession of, and guarded by
his opponent, Wenceslas.
The majority of the magnates, however, did not accept Charles' rule and proclaimed Wenceslaus their
king, crowning him with the true Holy Crown in Szekesfehervar by Archbishop John of Kalocsa in 1301. To
further his legitimacy, Wenceslaus got engaged to Elizabeth, daughter of King Andrew Ill, the last of the
Arpad dynasty and assumed the name of Ladislaus V (Laszlo). In those confusing years Hungary was split
into principalities and Wenceslaus could only claim sovereignty over what today is Slovakia, Burgenland
and the territory around Buda, the capital. Regrettably for him, he was not universally recognized and
eventually would renounce the Hungarian throne.
Not to be outdone, Charles Robert recruited military forces in Slavonia and laid siege to Buda Castle in
September 1302, but he was not successful in his conquest and had to withdraw to Slavonia. - Wenceslaus
feared for his throne and asked his father for help. The Bohemian king Wenceslaus II came to Hungary in
the summer of 1304 at the head of a large army to provide support and credibility to his son Vencel, but
soon realized that the son's position was unstable and probably untenable, to say the least. He retreated
and his son followed, takin the Holy Crown with him.
When the Bohemian king died in 1305 and Wenceslaus was elevated to the throne of that country, he gave
up his aspirations to the Hungarian throne. Wenceslaus abdicated, offering the crown to the Bavarian
Prince Otto, who was the 46-year-old grandson of King Bela IV. Otto was considered the enemy of the
Austrian Habsburgs, so Otto had to disguise himself as a merchant while transiting Austria to Prague where
he took possession of the Holy Crown. On his way to Hungary, Otto nearly lost the crown until it was
accidentally found in the swamp near the Hungarian border (see my letter to the Editor of the Washington
Post). Otto was then crowned as Bela V with the Holy Crown in Szekesfehervar in December 1305 and
assumed the name Bela V.
Wenceslaus broke off his engagement to Elizabeth of Hungary and married the daughter of a Polish Duke,
hoping to establish his rights to the Polish throne as well. Unfortunately for him, Wenceslaus was
murdered under mysterious circumstances on August 4, 1306.
Otto, or Bela V reigned from 1305 to 1308, encountering much resistance from some of the powerful
magnates. In June 1307 he visited Ladislaus Kan, the Voivode of Transylvania, but was arrested, leaving
the throne open for Charles Robert to take. Otto was released from prison (or may have escaped) and
left the country. On November 27, 1308, the assembly of nobles met in Pest and proclaimed Charles as
king of Hungary, however, Ladislaus Kan would not release the crown. The Papal legate had a new crown
made for Charles with which he was crowned on June 15, 1309. Pressure was put on the Kan and he
finally released the crown so that on August 27, 1310, Charles could be crowned for the third time, taking
the official name as Charles I of Hungary, which he governed until 1342.
And with that, an unstable, dramatic and dangerous phase of Hungarian history, called "interregnum" was
completed.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
21
THE TENTH CENTURY
It is without a doubt that the arrival of the Hungarians in the Carpathian basin was a momentous occasion
in European history. There had been other peoples, like the Avars, Khazars, the Huns and the Romans
who settled in the area only to move on in time and in most cases fade out of history. The Magyars staid!
This is hardly the most auspicious space for me to declare the effect and significance of our ancestors, but
I am not a lone voice in the wilderness. I have taken the liberty of taking some input from such luminaries
as H.G. Wells (The Outline of History) and others.
For a long view, we must agree that some of the major events of the first millennium included the
existence and fall of the Roman Empire, as well as the ascendency of Charlemagne some 3 centuries later.
Tragic as it was, the fall of Rome in 476 A.D. in front of the Visigoth Alaric had been preceded by the moral
decline of the empire. {Many historians are seeking similarities between that event and the dissipation
of empires in our modern times, but let that be the subject of another treatise at another time.)
Charlemagne took over the reign from his father and was the king of the Franks from 768 A.D.,expanding
into territories which would eventually constitute the two major powers of Europe, i.e. France and
Germany. In 799 A.D. Pope Leo Ill placed the crown on Charlemagne's head to make him Emperor of the
Holy Roman Empire, - a wishful extension of the "old Roman empire" as the major force to deal with, and
as the defender of the Pope, the "Caesar" of the spirit of the Continent.
Charlemagne died in 813 A.D. With his passing, the inevitable decline of the empire began. As H.G. Wells
termed it: "In all of Europe there survived not a tithe of the speculative vigour that we find in the Athenian
literature of the 5th.century B.C. There was no power to postulate a new occasion.... Europe, in a series
of attempts to restore (the Roman Empire) drifted towards a dreary imitation and revival of the
misconceived failures of the past."
The resulting shift of power plays, the "treacheries, claims and acquisitions" are difficult to trace as
lawlessness and struggle for power was everywhere. The Church itself showed great strain in adhering to
the teachings of Jesus Christ. In fact, in 904 A.D. the disgraceful rule of the Popes was called "pornocracy"
with the main player being Pope Sergius Ill, who, among other dastardly acts, ordered the strangulation
of two of his rivals. Sergius was indebted to the Theophylact family of Tusculum, allegedly having an illicit
affair with the Count's daughter, resulting in the birth of a male child who, by the year 931, became Pope
John XI. Indeed, it was a dark period for the Church, when, for 60 years Popes were strongly influenced,
sometimes even elected, by corrupt and powerful Roman families. This was a period of feudal violence in
Europe where the Papacy was allowed to become the pawn of aristocratic rulers. Where was the Holy
Spirit in those instances?
The foundation of the economic and social system was feudalism. It rested on the theory that layers of
society owed their existence to a higher level and for the maintenance of their existence required service
from the lowest ranks to the next highest, all the way to the king (and the Pope). The service rendered
by the nobles to their immediate superiors was mainly military as they were required to fight on their
overlord's behalf. A serf, on the lowest level, might be a virtual slave, while freemen owned land and
property but had to make themselves available to the level above them. In return, the strength and
power of the overlord protected those who were dependent on him.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
22
Into such an environment came the wild tribes of the Hungarians in 895 A.D. Not accustomed to strict
regulation over the grazing land for their livestock and not used to live in any one place long enough to
"own it", they ventured into Western territories all the way to the Rhine and beyond, until they suffered
their first defeat in 933 A.D. at the hands of Henry I at Merseburg and in 955 A.D. at Lechfeld near
Augsburg by Emperor Otto.
Realizing that his people would be best served by settling down, King Stephen introduced Christianity. It
is simply astounding that in a mere 38 years of his reign, Stephen was able to convert the Hungarian tribes
and make them into a Hungarian nation. He fashioned a nation which made its mark on world history. King
Stephen was able to strengthen the ties to the West and did that from strength and respect, not from the
stand of a weak or conquered nation.
At the crossroads of history and historical migration, Hungary's physical location became, of necessity,
the place to beat for armies and adventurers on the warpath. Hungarians never stood down to await and
then serve the armadas from all directions of the compass. They stood their ground. The Carpathian basin
suffered periodic incursions from the West as Austrian and German potentates came to support their
appointees to the Hungarian throne. A couple of times in the country's history, the decisive blow came
from the Russians who penetrated the Carpathians from the North and East to strike at the heart of the
country. I n t h e c o m i n g c e n t u r i e s t he Ottoman Turks ventured well beyond their territories in the
Balkans with their eyes on the wealth of Vienna. The road took them first to the fortifications in Hungary
where thousands of the Magyar braves laid their lives in the path of the invaders. And when their blood
ran out, they suffered 145 years of foreign occupation. Hungarians were always ready and able to defend
their values, their religion, their homeland so that the West should feel more secure knowing that first to
stand up to the enemy were the Hungarians.
And from a larger perspective, it was in the 10th century, when the so-called Holy Roman Empire came to
being, headed by the German King Otto I, in 936. It was Otto, who won a decisive battle over the
marauding Hungarians in 955 near Augsburg, putting an end to their advancement westward. (That is the
answer to nostalgic Hungarians, among them my wife, who remarked: "If Arpad had only ridden a few
hundred miles further westward, we'd be living in Switzerland today ...!") Otto had himself crowned
Emperor, which endured until Napoleon abolished it 800 years later. - Christian forces reconquered Spain
in 900 and made a move against Moslems trying to expand from Africa to the European continent. The
so-called British Isles were under Danish rule since the 850s, but their supremacy fell apart in the early
10th century when Edward the Elder took the title of "King of the Angles and Saxons" in 901.
As yet another historian, C,A. Macartney wrote: "It must be said that Hungary was, on the whole, lucky in
its kings. Several of the Arpads were men of ability and of endearing nature. Nevertheless, the endemic
dynastic warfare did Hungary much harm. Not only did the fighting which accompanied it bring with it
loss of blood and material devastation, but many claimants to the throne called in foreign help, - German,
Polish and even Byzantine, - thus opening the way to foreign interference in the country's internal affairs,
political degradation and loss of territory."
If we don't learn from our past mistakes, we must repeat them. Let us now see where Hungary's leaders
took the nation on its path over the next thousand years.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
23
THE NEXT THOUSAND YEARS
STEPHEN II (II lstván), 1116 -1131
The elder son of King Coloman (the book-lover), who had him crowned in his childhood to ensure
Stephen's success against his brother A'lmos. Stephen's coronation in 1105 (11 years before his actual
reign began) caused a rebellion and warfare internally. Nevertheless, with Coloman's death, Stephen
acceded to the throne at age 15 in 1116.
His rule started with two military defeats. The Czechs misinterpreted Stephen's peaceful intention and
the Hungarian army suffered a defeat in May; whereas in June Venetian troops occupied Dalmatia sending
the Hungarian army to its defeat. Dalmatia was lost for over 5 years. Of all the strange projects Stephen
got himself involved, he gave shelter to the Pechenegs at his court after they had been defeated by the
Byzantine Emperor. Stephen made the Pechenegs into bodyguards which turned into a conspiracy against
him, trying to return the blinded Duke Almos to the throne. The conspiracy was revealed and Almos fled
to the Byzantine empire where he died in 1127.
Finally, in 1129 Stephen called back to his court his cousin, the blinded Bela, son of Almos. Stephen and
his troops marched against the Byzantine Empire and defeated them with the help of Duke Sobeslav of
Bohemia.
Stephen's rule was unpopular among the nobility because he preferred living with his concubines instead
of getting married and produce an heir. He was ultimately forced to marry Cristiana, daughter of Prince
Robert of Capua, in 1120, but produced no heir. Stephen designated his sister's son, Saul, to be his
successor, but Saul died before his uncle. Stephen died of dysentery in 1131.
BÉLA II (Vak Béla II), 1131- 1141
As we read above, in 1129 King Stephen called his cousin, the blinded Bela, the only son of Almos, to
return to the Hungarian Court from his exile. Upon the death of the childless Stephen, Bela was crowned.
You'll recall that King Coloman had married Eufemia, daughter of the Grand Prince Vladimir of Kiev in
1112. Eufemia, however, was soon sent packing when she was found to be promiscuous. Coloman
divorced the adulterous woman, but Eufemia gave birth in Kiev to a son, Boris, and she claimed that
Coloman was his father which the king vehemently denied.
This boy, Boris, would create a lot of trouble after Bela II was crowned in 1131. Bela married Jelena, one
of the daughters of a Serbian duke, and they produced a number of historic offspring, among them the
next king-to-be, Geza II (who ruled from 1141 to 1162), and two other royal sons, Ladislaus II (1131) and
Stephen IV (1133), while their daughter, Elizabeth became the wife of Duke Mieszko of Poland.
Jelena had a significant role in governing the country because her husband, the king, was blind. Among
other deeds, she ordered the execution of the people whom she considered responsible for her husband's
blinding. She also placed her brother (a Serb, mind you!) in command of the Hungarian Army.
In the meantime, Boris enlisted the help of the Polish king Boleslaus and in 1132 Polish and Russian troops
entered Hungary. They were defeated, but many Hungarian nobles who refused to brand Boris a bastard,
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
24
were executed by King Bela II. In 1136 Bela regained control of Dalmatia from Venice and occupied
Bosnia, making his middle son, Ladislaus, king of that country. And in a very smart political move he had
his sisters Hedwig and Adelaide marry into the Austrian and Bohemian royal families, helping to form an
alliance with those countries.
Unfortunately, Bela became an alcoholic and died of overindulgence in 1141, making room for his son,
Geza, a minor, to ascend to the throne.
GEZA II (1141-1162)
Geza was still a minor when he was crowned,so his mother, Helena, served as regent of the kingdom.
Growing up, Geza married Euphrosyne in 1146, who was the sister of the Grand Prince of Kiev. She
bore 8 children for him, two of whom would be future kings of Hungary.
The aforementioned Boris, the alleged descendant of King Coloman, was still giving trouble to the
Hungarian royal house, claiming rights to the Hungarian throne. Five years into the rule of Geza, Boris
occupied the fortress in Pozsony (today's Bratislava in Slovakia) in 1146 with the help of the Austrian Duke
Henry II. Geza was at the head of his armies when he defeated the pretender, thereby gaining respect of
the Hungarian nobility.
Many military campaigns, too many to be listed, are attached to Geza's name. In June of 1147 Germany's
King Conrad Ill was at the head of the Crusader Army as they passed through Hungary, - without major
conflicts. But Boris secretly joined another Crusade under the command of the French king Louis VII and
used that as a means to sneak into Hungary. Geza protested and although Louis VII did not extradite the
pretender, he had Boris escorted out of Hungary under guarded custody. Geza's troops were busy in an
1150 campaign near Przemysl in the Carpathians when Boris attacked from the South with Byzantine
forces. Geza hurried to defeat the intruders and concluded a truce with the Byzantine empire.
Sadly, there was an internecine incident in 1157when Geza's younger brother, Stephen conspired against
him. Geza defeated the conspiracy, and Stephen fled to the court of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I.
Upon Geza's intersession, Frederick refused any assistance to Stephen who then fled to Constantinople.
1
Two years later Geza's other younger brother, Ladislaus, also conspired against Geza, but he was without
success and would find refuge with Manuel I Komnenos, the Byzantine emperor.
Geza died in 1162 and was buried in Szekesfehervar.
STEPHEN Ill (Ill Istvan), (1162 -1172)
Born in 1147, he was the elder son of his father, Geza II and he acceded to the throne at age 15 upon the
king's death in 1162. Actually, Geza already named Stephen as his successor when Stephen was only 5
years old! Both of his uncles (Geza's brothers Stephen and Ladislaus) coveted the crown and enlisted the
help of Byzantine Emperor Manuel I ,against whom Stephen constantly had to defend his rightful throne.
Under pressure, King Stephen Ill found it necessary to escape to Pozsony (today's Bratislava) to seek the
support of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I. Eventually uncle Ladislaus died, but the king's other uncle,
also called Stephen, marched against the young Stephen. Fortune smiled on the king when he defeated
and arrested his uncle at Szekesfehervar. Regrettably, on the mistaken advice of Archbishop Lukas, the
king let the usurper flee to the Byzantine Empire. Emperor Manual though, never gave up his efforts to
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
25
enter Hungary. To ensure the sovereignty of the Southern part of Hungary, King Stephen Ill sent his
younger brother Bela as a virtual ambassador to Constantinople. Interestingly, Bela already bore the title
of Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia, which was given to him in his father Geza's last will. Emperor Manuel,
pretending to ensure Bela's "inheritance" of the Balkan region, he launched yet another attack against
Hungary in 1164. This time King Vladislaus of Bohemia and Duke Henry II of Austria came to Stephen's
help and negotiated a peace agreement which, rightly or wrongly, transferred an area called the
"Szeremse g" to the Byzantine Emperor.
In the next 3 years, the Szeremseg changed hands three times as Stephen and Manuel kept testing each
other's military fortunes, once even involving Austrian troops after Stephen married Agnes, daughter of
Duke Henry II of Austria. These wars cost the Hungarians heavily. To finance them, Stephen dipped
into the coffers of the Church under the right of investiture, upsetting the Church leadership. To
appease the Vatican, Stephen granted large estates to the Knights Templar in Hungary.
Stephen's first marriage in 1167 was to an unnamed daughter of a Slavic Prince, but the young bride was
"repudiated" the following year (probably because she couldn't have children) and was sent home. As
mentioned above, in 1168 Stephen married Agnes, daughter of Austrian Duke Henry II. Two little boys were
born to them, but both died in infancy.
In 1172 the Duke of Austria was on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and transited Hungary. King Stephen Ill
met the Duke, however, he fell suddenly ill and died. I wonder if his father-in-law had anything to do with
it...? Stephen was buried in Esztergom.
While Stephen was the rightfully crowned king from March 1162 to March, 1172, a somewhat confusing
and turbulent period ensued with two of his uncles claiming the royal title. I have taken snippets of
information of this period from, among other sources, the Encyclopedia Britannica, and list the period
under the title of
USURPERS OF THE THRONE
LADISLAUS II (II. Laszlo, May 1162 to January 1163) - unconfirmed. See note below.
Upon their brother, Geza ll's death in May, 1162, both brothers, Stephen and Ladislaus, aspired to take
over governing Hungary. They were prevented from accessing the throne by Geza's son, who had been
named the king's successor as Stephen Ill, even though Stephen was only a minor at the time. This created
bad blood in the family, causing the relations between the three brothers to fall apart. Both Stephen and
Ladislaus conspired against the young king and fled to the court of Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos
in Constantinople, seeking his help.
As I pointed out in earlier writings, the ancient Hungarian custom of the oldest male member of the royal
family took precedence over the deceased king's first-born son for the throne. Based on this custom, the
titled electors preferred Ladislaus over his nephew Stephen, and sent message to Constantinople voicing
their preference. Ladislaus entered Hungary with the help of the Byzantine Emperor, and was proclaimed
king in Szekesfehervar. King Stephen Ill, upon hearing of the event, fled to Pozsony. But for the coronation
to take place, Ladislaus needed an Arcbbishop to perform the ceremony.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
26
Since the Archbishop Lukas of Esztergom remained loyal to Stephen Ill, they had to find an alternate
Church dignitary. The Archbishop Miko of Kalocsa assented to perform the ceremonial coronation in July,
1162. (The question is why didn't Stephen take the Holy Crown with him to Pozsony?!) Hungary now had
two "crowned" kings in the same period: Stephen Ill and Ladislaus II. To be "fair" to Ladislaus, on the
occasion of his coronation the new king granted what was known as "Tercia pars Regni", or one-third of
the Kingdom of Hungary to his brother, Stephen Ill.
Archbishop Lukas continued to deny the legitimacy of Ladislaus' right to the throne and excommunicated
him. In response, Ladislaus had the archbishop arrested, whereupon Pope Alexander Ill intervened,
forcing Ladislaus to release Lukas on Christmas, 1162. Still, Lukas refused to absolve the king. A couple of
weeks later Ladislaus was found dead, having died most likely of poisoning. His rule ended on January 14,
1163.
For the sake of historical accuracy, in medieval times he was only counted as an anti-king, so another
Ladislaus who emerged in the 13th century, would be officially counted as Ladislaus II.
STEPHEN IV (IV. Istvan, January 1163 - June 1163)
As we have seen in the above segment about Ladislaus II, Stephen was one of the two brothers who
conspired against their brother, King Geza II. Stephen, too, wanted to deny the ascension of Geza's son,
Stephen, to the throne. When his position became untenable in Hungary, he fled first to the Court of the
Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I. To prevent the Emperor Frederick from giving Stephen help, King Geza
II outmaneuvered him, promising troops as a bribe to fight yet another conflict with Milan. Frederick then
denied support to Stephen who had to flee to the Byzantine Emperor's court in Constantinople.
In time Ladislaus would be crowned king, although his nephew, as Stephen Ill, already held the title. When
Ladislaus died inJanuary, 1163 of poisoning, the Hungarian electors proclaimed his brother the new king
as Stephen IV. Archbishop Lucas of Esztergom once again showed his loyalty to King Stephen Il land denied
his coronation. In his place, Archbishop Miko of Kalocsa performed the coronation ceremony. (The
question is, where was Stephen Ill all this time; why wasn't he defending the Holy Crown?)
Archbishop Lucas excommunicated King Stephen lV which got Stephen so angry, he prohibited any
correspondence between the Hungarian bishops and the Vatican. The usurper king seemed on the verge
of separating the Catholic Church in Hungary from Rome.
Meanwhile, the Hungarian barons became indignant and finally rallied behind King Stephen Ill. Holy
Roman Emperor Frederick I sent troops to assist King Stephen Ill, who led his troops against the usurper
king Stephen IV, defeating him and the Byzantine troops that he had hired. Stephen IV was captured,
but later released on the advice of Archbishop Lucas, opening the way for him to escape to Byzantium.
This time the Emperor double-crossed Stephen and concluded peace with Stephen Ill. As compensation,
he was appointed governor of a fortress from which he kept harassing Hungarian territories until
Stephen Ill's troops laid siege to the fortress at Zimony. In ultimate humiliation, his own troops
poisoned him before surrendering to Stephen Ill's forces.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
27
The Court Jester
Many history books skip over these convoluted periods in Hungarian history and, after brief stops with
Kings Solomon, St. Ladislaus and Coloman the book lover, go directly from St. Stephen (1038) to the next
ruler, Bela Ill (1172) as being one of the most powerful rulers of the country.
Given the many references above to poisonings to end the undesirable reign of certain kings, I would like
to sidetrack history for a moment and take a breather with the Hollywood movie entitled: Court Jester, a
comedy in which poisoning is one of the highlights of the film.
The rather complicated but very funny plot has at its core Giacomo, "King of Jesters, Jester of Kings",
played by Danny Kaye. On a mission to install a baby boy to the throne, Giacomo meets the current king's
daughter who declares her love for the jester over a visiting knight her father wants her to marry. The king
orders Giacomo to be knighted so he can joust the visitor and the winner be chosen to marry the princess.
Giacomo, knowing nothing about jousting, takes advantage of advice from Griselda, a witch in the service
of the princess, who promises to poison one of the drinks the antagonists are supposed to drink before the
event. She tells the jester how to choose the safe brew:
Griselda (to Giacomo): The pellet with the poison i s i n the vessel with the pestle; the chalice from the
palace has the brew that is true!
Giacomo repeats it: The pellet with the poison is in the vessel with the pestle; the chalice from the palace
has the brew that is true. Right?
Griselda: Yes, but there's been a change: they broke the chalice from the palace and replaced it with a
flagon.
Giacomo: They broke the chalice from the palace?
Griselda: Right! And replaced it with a flagon with a dragon.
Giacomo: But did you put the pellet with the poison in the vessel with the pestle?
Griselda: No! The pellet with the poison is in the flagon with the dragon! The vessel with the pestle has
the brew that is true!
Giacomo: The poison with the..... The pellet with the poison is in the flagon with the dragon. The vessel
with the pestle has the brew that is true! The pellet with the poison.....
Griselda: Just remember that!
NO wonder then, that in real life complications occurred over a "simple act'' of poisoning...
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
28
BELA Ill (1172 -1196)
An important player in this period was King Bela Ill who ruled from 1172 to 1192. He turned out to be
the wealthiest member of the dynasty who had personal disposition over 23,000 kg (about 51,000 lbs) of
pure silver, well exceeding the wealth of the kings of France and England. Bela's main contribution to
history was that he rolled back the influence of the Byzantine Empire by encroaching Bosnia, Dalmatia
and Serbia as well.
Bela was the second son of Geza II (1141-1162) and the younger brother of Stephen Ill (1162-1172). He
was brought up and educated in the Byzantine court of Emperor Manuel I. The Emperor intended for Bela
to inherit Byzantium from him and marry his daughter Maria. In 1169, however, Manuel and his wife had
a son, Alexius, born to them. Bela's "engagement" to Maria was cancelled, but the emperor negotiated
his marriage to Agnes of Antioch.
When King Stephen III died childless, Bela became his rightful heir and Bela moved to Hungary in
anticipation of being crowned by the Archbishop of Esztergom. However, Lucas, the Archbishop refused
to crown Bela with St. Stephen's crown because he declared that the gift, which Bela had given to the
archbishop's envoy, was a bribe. Bela had to seek help from Pope Alexander III, who authorized his
investiture by the Archbishop of Kalocsa.
To complicate matters, the electors in Hungary would have preferred his younger brother, Prince Geza,
to become king. The tension got to the point where Bela had his own brother accused of treason, forcing
him to flee to Henry II of Austria and then to the court of Emperor Frederick I. He was arrested by
Bohemian Duke Sobeslav and returned to King Bela Ill. He would be imprisoned until 1189 when the Holy
Roman Emperor Frederick I was transiting Hungary, making his crusade to the Holy Land. Upon the
Emperor's request, Geza was freed and retired to Byzantium.
Thanks to Bela's visionary approach to his role in history, we now know much more about his rule and his
internal policies than about many of the other Hungarian rulers. By establishing the Royal Chancellery,
he ordered, for example, that all issues discussed by the king had to be put down in writing. It came to
light as well that the Archbishop Andrew of Kalocsa may have insulted the king which drew the king's ire.
He bore pressure on Lukas, the Archbishop of Esztergom, to excommunicate the prelate Andrew and then
occupied the estates of the archdiocese, gaining its wealth for the king. Pope Alexander Ill had to
intervene later on to ease the tension between the king and the archbishop.
He followed an expansionist strategy, but used his military power wisely. When Byzantine Emperor
Manuel I died in September of 1180, Bela took advantage of the situation and reoccupied Croatia and
Dalmatia. And to strengthen the ties between the two belligerents he gave his daughter, Margaret, in
marriage to the new Byzantine emperor, Isaac II Angelos. After his first wife, Agnes of Antioch (I wonder
how they communicated back in the royal household? ...) died in 1184, Bela first wanted to marry
Theodora, one of Emperor Manuel's nieces, however, the Byzantine church forbade the marriage to take
place, - I assume because of religious conflict? - Bela then turned westward and may have established a
lasting connection with England. How did this happen? Bela married Marguerite of France who was the
French King Philip ll's sister and the widow of Henry, the eldest son of King Henry II of England.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
29
In May, 1189, Frederick I was leading his Crusade to the Holy Land which took him through Hungary. Bela
must have been impressed by the pomp and circumstance parading through his country, so he took an oath
to lead another crusade to the Holy Land, which did not take place because Bela died on April 23, 1196.
Bela's legacy was that he re-established Hungary's respect in Europe and his court was acknowledged to
be among the most brilliant in Europe. His extraordinary height at over 2 metres (6 ft 8 inches) made it
easier to identify his remains in the cathedral at Szekesfehervar, which had been ruined by the Turkish
occupation. He was reinterred at the Matthias Coronation Church in Budapest, together with his first wife
Agnes.
Just as a side remark, let's not feel too sorry for Margaret, King Bela Ill's daughter whom he gave in marriage
to Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos. After Angelos passed away, however, she married twice more:
firstly to Boniface of Thessalonica (Greece, or formerly the Roman capital of Macedonia), and secondly to
Nicholas I of Saint Omer, - wherever that was.
A little detour
I always felt a little sorry for women in the ancient royal families. They were often sent away to a foreign
country to marry a prince or king with whom they had no romantic involvement before hitting the soft
matrimonial mattress. They were used as chattel to commit one or both parties to observe the terms of
a treaty. Most often they did not speak the language of their new country, nor did they know much of
their new husband and had to eat and digest food and customs totally foreign to them.
I am sure the prospective groom was nervous, too, often not even having met, or just met briefly with the
woman he was expected to spend his nights, or his entire life. Of course, the sweetener in the deal was
often the dowry which accompanied the sweet young thing entering your household. In reverse, when
the bride was Hungarian and she was being sent to Poland or Bohemia or Bavaria, her carriage was pulled
by horses from the best of Hungarian stables, the carriage rode on wheels accustomed to the ruts in the
"puszta", which was not exactly the Autobahn. We are not talking strictly about brides, mind you. When
Andrew II was returning from the 5th crusade, he made a detour to arrange for a lovely young Greek thing
for his son Bela from Emperor "Teddy" Laskaris of Nicaea. Did Bela, the future King Bela IV, carry with him
the promise of making a Greek-Hungarian Queen, or was the promise made for monetary reasons?
It is interesting to consider the historian Macartney's remarks, simply stating that "in those days Hungary
was almost, not quite, the leading power in south-eastern Europe." In the case of another Bela (Bela Ill),
whose second marriage was to Marguerite of France, sister of King Philip II and widow of Henry, eldest
son of King Henry II of England, Bela could claim to be the brother-in-law of the King of France! The
marriage document, required for the negotiations, showed that his revenues were equal to those of his
English and French contemporaries and just a tad under those of the Holy Roman Emperor!
And this was not only true for the female descendants of Hungarian kings, but it was also true in reverse,
when the palace at Buda welcomed a foreign princess to be betrothed to a Magyar king or king -to-be.
The very first queen, Giselle or Gisela of Bavaria, was betrothed to King Stephen at a very young age. She
had been raised in a convent, so what did she know of the outside world? Granted, she was allowed to
be accompanied by dozens of knights whom her father, Henry the Wrangler, Duke of Bavaria, gave her as
a wedding present. At least she could converse in German with those folks, but what about others in her
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
30
royal entourage? She may not have been accustomed to Wiener Schnitzle served for lunch in the
convent, but how did she take to "paprikas krumpli" (potatoes in paprika sauce) served in King Stephen's
kitchen? Was she endeared by Stephen as "lch liebe dich?" Or was it her royal duty to unceremoniously
deliver, nurture and often bury her children, the offspring of the saintly warlord, Istvan? When and how
did she learn the language?
Perusing some of these daunting questions, I came across an interesting situation, where a foreigner, born
in Hungary, became a Scottish saint. Although the story does not fit this particular period in my storytelling, it presents a unique drama having to do with royalty. I am talking of the British princess Margaret.
Due to the constraints of time and space, I am shamelessly quoting, more or less, from the Cambridge
Encyclopedia as well as from Wikipedia.
SAINT MARGARET OF SCOTLAND
She was born in 1045 A.D. into the House of Wessex. Her father was the English prince Edward the Exile
and granddaughter of Edmund Ironside, king of England. When the Danes, under the leadership of
Canute, conquered the English forces in 1016, the infant Edward was exiled to the European continent,
first to Sweden, then to Kiev and later, as an adult, to Hungary. He supported Andrew l's bid for the throne
in 1045, which was in jeopardy not only because of a pagan uprising, but also due to Andrew's ongoing
troubles with his brothers also claiming the right to the throne.
Edward chose Agatha to be his wife, but her provenance could not be proved. She might have been English
in Edward's entourage, or she may have been Hungarian from the local aristocracy. Their daughter,
Margaret, was born in Hungary in 1045, as were her brother and her sister. The new Hungarian king,
Andrew, was a devout Catholic and provided a pious environment for the English guests at his court.
Our main interest in St. Margaret's life was really to explore her circumstances in Hungary, but her entire
life is so interesting and involved, I will not let it pass without notice. There is no credible, detailed
description of her and her family's stay in Hungary, yet they presumably were the guests of Andrew for
some 12 years, when Edward was recalled to England in 1057 as a potential successor to the childless
Edward the Confessor. Twelve years is a long time, which I am sure the bright English kids (and even their
parents) turned to good use, learning some of the language, customs and history.
Edward took his entire family back with him to England where disaster struck. Whether from natural
causes or sinister circumstances, Edward met death upon landing. Margaret was settled at the English
court where her brother, Edward Aetheling, was considered a possible heir to the throne. With the death
of Edward the Confessor and his transitional successor Harold having died in the Norman invasion, Edgar
was proclaimed King of England in 1068. His widowed mother Agatha, together with her children, fled
the Normans to Northumbria in the North. From here they were to return to the European continent by
ship, but a storm blew them north to Scotland. Here they sought the protection of King Malcolm Ill.
Malcolm was a widower with two sons. It appears that romance blossomed soon between Malcolm and
Margaret, and despite Margaret's reluctance to engage in matrimony, their wedding took place in 1070.
In time, Margaret had 8 children by Malcolm, among them 4 future kings and queens. Margaret remained
a dedicated Catholic, supporter of the poor and the helpless, and having civilizing influence on Malcolm.
She also brought the Church of Scotland to conform to those of Rome and the Church on the Continent as
she remembered itfrom her childhood, - no doubt from Hungary.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
31
Malcolm and their eldest son, Edward, were killed in a battle against the English. The life of constant austerity
and fasting took their toll on Margaret's life. She died on November 16, 1093, three days after the death of her
husband and son. In recognition of her personal holiness, charity and work on Church reform, she was
canonized by Pope Innocent IV in 1250. She is venerated in both the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches.
I must beg your indulgence for this bypass into English history but I wonder if the Hungarian King Bela IV
may have been influenced in some way to name his daughter Margaret as well, based on an exiled little
young lady at Buda Castle some years back. The Hungarian Margaret, as we will learn later, also lived a
religious life and was canonized as one of Hungary's saints.
EMERIC (lmre, 1196 - 1204)
He was the first-born son of Bela Ill and Agnes of Antioch. His father, wanting to ensure his son's
succession, had Emeric crowned in 1182, when he was only 8 years old, and 14 years before his reign
actually began. Emeric was engaged to Agnes, the daughter of Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, but her
premature death two years later prevented this promising marriage to take place. In 1198 Emeric married
lnfanta Constance of Aragon and they had one son who would become the infant King Ladislaus Ill, but lived
only 5 years. See the following story.)
Emeric was appointed by his father to be the Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia. Bela Ill's last will left the
kingdom entirely to Emeric, but gave his younger son, Andrew, a substantial amount of money so that he
could fulfill his father's promise to lead yet another crusade to the Middle East. Andrew, however, used
the money to secure the loyalties of the electors, hoping to gain access to the throne. He also sought the
help of Leopold VI, Duke of Austria to dethrone his brother, and their combined armies were victorious
over Emeric in the Battle of Mecsek (near Pecs) in December 1197. The conquest also meant that Emeric
had to transfer the rule of Croatia and Dalmatia to his brother.
It is upsetting that the royal offspring of Bela Ill were more concerned about personal power than about
the unity and the benefit of the kingdom. Indeed, the brothers fought another battle in the summer of
1199 at Rad, where Emeric defeated his brother, forcing him to flee to Austria. With the mediation of
Papal Legate Gregory, however, Duke Andrew was allowed to return to Hungary and was again granted
rule over Croatia and Dalmatia.
Andrew continued conspiring against his brother. Pope Innocent Ill urged Andrew to fulfill his father's
wish to spend the monies on organizing another crusade. Emeric honored his part of the promise and
transferred funds and property to the Archbishop of Esztergom.
Emeric had to deal with military hotspots in Serbia, Bulgaria and Bosnia, in which he gained the allegiance
and fidelity of Ban Kulin of Bosnia. Another troubling situation emerged in Bulgaria where the Doge of
Venice took the Dalmatian city of Zara from Hungarian oversight. Pope Innocent excommunicated the
Venetians and the Crusaders so the Hungarians would regain control of Zara, but Emeric's troops were
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
32
unable to reoccupy the city and gave it up by signing a peace treaty, which also separated Dalmatia from
Hungary.
When Andrew would again conspire against Emeric in 1203, the king led his armies against him. Realizing
that he was outnumbered, Emeric confronted Andrew alone, wearing only the crown and the scepter.
Andrew surrendered, however, Emeric had him arrested. As Emeric's health was failing, he had his four
year old son, Ladislaus, crowned in August 1204 and reconciled with Andrew, appointing him to govern
Hungary during his son's minor years. Emeric died in 1204 and was buried in the Cathedral of Eger.
LADISLAUS Ill (III Laszlo - November 1204 - May 1205)
Given the merciless intranecine fights among royal heirs, it is perhaps fortunate that Ladislaus Ill was the only
son of King Emeric. Ladislaus was only 4 years old when his father had him crowned, - another ridiculous
practice in an effort to "save" the throne for the selected heir. As we read above, Emeric made his brother,
Andrew promise that he would help the young Ladislaus govern while he was a minor. As we may remember,
Andrew had conspired against Emeric and should have been jailed instead of being entrusted with such a
precious charge.
As expected, Andrew betrayed his brother. When Emeric died, Andrew grabbed total power and made the
life of the young Ladislaus and the dowager Queen miserable, so that they found it necessary to escape to
Vienna to the protection of Leopold VI, Duke of Austria. The child died there in May, 1205, but was buried in
Szekesfehervar.
ANDREW II (II. Andras/Endre - 1205 -1235)
Well, guess who would be the next king? No need to wonder any more. Of course, it was Andrew, son of
King Bela Ill and younger brother of Emeric.
His father, Bela Ill had given him the principality of Halych (the later Galicia on the northern edge of the
Carpathian Mountains), while his brother Emeric got the crown. The fierce boyars of Halych rebelled
against Andrew and expelled the Hungarian troops representing the Hungarian ruler. Andrew then turned
against his brother, King Emeric who was forced to defend his crown against the young usurper by military
force. Emeric lost the 1197 battle with Andrew, but won the battle in 1199, and yet felt obligated to grant
him the position of Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia.
Bela Ill had taken an oath to leave funds with Andrew from which to finance another crusade. Andrew
misused the funds and conducted military expeditions to neighboring provinces while conspiring against
his brother, King Emeric.
Andrew married Gertrude, a daughter of the Duke of Merania who had great influence over Andrew,
suggesting that he conspire again to overthrow Emeric. This is where a dramatic scene took place in 1203,
when Emeric realized that his troops were outnumbered by Andrew's. Emeric left his troops and went to
his brother's camp wearing no armor but the crown and scepter. Seeing that, Andrew surrendered and
was arrested, but later managed to escape.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
33
As I pointed out earlier, Emeric's health was failing. Wanting to secure the ascension of his young son,
Ladislaus, who had been crowned at the age of 5, the king appointed Andrew to govern Hungary while
Ladislaus was still a minor. Emeric died in late fall of 1204. Andrew grabbed power, seizing the money on
deposit on behalf of Ladislaus. The Queen dowager lnfanta Constance of Aragon was afraid for the life of
her son and they fled to Austria. Andrew made preparations against Leopold IV, the Duke of Austria to bring
Ladislaus back, but the child-king died in May of 1205, which opened the way for Andrew to ascend to the
throne.
The coronation took place in Szekesfehervar on May 29, 1205. His reign ran into immediate problems,
which would remain its permanent feature. To ingratiate himself with his supporters, Andrew gave
everything away, bestowing the royal estates to select noblemen. The legal document he drew up had
the title of Novae institutiones, declaring that "Nothing can set bounds to the generosity of the Royal
Majesty." His "generosity" led to the utter impoverishment of the treasury as he gave away money,
villages and whole counties. He married Gertrude of Merania, which caused immediate grave discontent
among his subject as Andrew was especially generous with his wife's German relatives.
Andrew married three times. With his first wife Gertrude they had five offsprings, among them the future King
Bela IV and Saint Elizabeth of Hungary.
Andrew also got involved in unprofitable military adventurism, such as a campaign in 1208 to acquire the
principality of Halych (the later Galicia) in the north, appointing a regent to govern the country, which he
promptly lost the following year. To reinstate the child-prince Danylo to the throne of Halych, he personally
led his troops to re-conquer the principality. In his absence from Buda, a group of aristocrats in his court
wanted to take revenge on Andrew for his generous financial support of Gertrude, the Queen. Scandalized
by the king's lavish spending, - particularly to his wife's consorts, - they offered the throne to his cousin, but
Andrew got wind of the conspiracy and managed to save his throne. To protect the southeastern border
against the Cumans, he granted rule of southeastern Transylvania to the Teutonic Knights, however, the
knights attempted to break away from Hungary and tried to establish their own country.
Andrew left Buda in the summer of 1213 to give military assistance to Prince Danylo, but had to turn back
when he was informed that his wife, the Queen Gertrude, was murdered. Despite the fact that he had
the leader of the conspiracy executed while forgiving the others, the conspirators showed contempt for
his son, Bela, as his possible successor. To ensure Bela's future, Andrew had his 8 year old son crowned
in 1214.
The Fifth Crusade
Andrew's troubles continued on the southern frontier. In 1214 Hungarian troops annexed Belgrade of the
Bulgarian Empire. Andrew made plans for making himself King of the Byzantine Empire and married Yolanda
de Courtenay, daughter of Peter I of Courtenay, and niece of Henry I, Emperor of Constantinople. But when
the Emperor Henry died in 1216, Andrew's plans were foiled as the country's barons proclaimed Henry's fatherin-law, Peter of Courtenay to be their choice.
Despite the depleted Hungarian treasury, Andrew decided to lead the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land. In
August 1217 the king and his troops embarked in Spalato (today's Split) in the Adriatic Sea and made
arrangements using Venetian navy ships to ferry them to the Holy Land. To assure his safe return, he
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
34
appointed Pontius de Cruce, Master of the Knights of the Templars as Regent of Croatia and Dalmatia. The
Crusaders landed in Cyprus in October, 1217 and from there they sailed to Acre where Andrew joined other
Crusaders to attack Jerusalem. Andrew led one of the largest Crusades against the Moslems, comprising of
20,000 knights and 12,000 garrison, so hopes were high for a successful campaign.
Initially, things were going well for Andrew as his troops defeated the Sultan at Bethsaida on the Jordan river.
The Muslim forces were retired to their fortresses and towns. Since the catapults did not arrive in time, Andrew
made fruitless frontal attacks on the fortresses of Lebanon and Mount Tabor. But Andrew's health was failing
and he decided to return to Hungary in February, 1218. On his return, he negotiated marriage contracts
between his younger son Andrew and Isabelle, a daughter of Armenian King Levon, as well as between his
other children and the courts of Emperor Laskaris of Nicaea and Tsar Asen of Bulgaria. His reputation may
have preceded him, because while staying at Nicaea, - a Hellenic city in northwestern Anatolia, - his cousins,
who lived there, attempted an unsuccessful attempt to take his life.
Upon his return to Hungary Andrew found the king's coffers completely empty and the country in anarchy.
Even Archbishop John of Esztergom, whom he charged with the regency of the country, was forced to
leave the country. To restore fiscal health to the treasury, he issued orders for new taxes and lent his
income to Jews and Muslims on interest which created more ill will against the king.
Let me deal, however briefly, with the practice in medieval Europe and in our case particularly of
Hungarian royalty, which caused the main reason for impoverishing the leading classes and indeed the
mainstay of Hungarian society. Kings, or "pretenders to the Crown" had accelerated the process,
according to the historian C.A. Macartney, by buying, or rewarding supporters with grants of land. At the
other extreme, many nobles sank into real poverty while preserving their political status. These
"sandalled barons" (bocskoros barok) then further diminished their wealth by giving away property to pay
off debts or buy influence.
More circumspect rulers, like King Coloman (1095-1116), ruled that all donations enacted since St.
Stephen's day, where the direct heirs no longer existed, should revert to the Crown. Also, offices of state
should not be made hereditary. It is interesting to observe that the "nation" did not develop along
hierarchical lines which was characteristic of societies in contemporary Western Europe.
The Golden Bull
To restore some semblance of order and enforce Hungarian rule to the southern part of the country, in
1220 Andrew appointed his son Bela (the future King Bela IV) as Duke of Slavonia, Dalmatia and Croatia.
He also tried to force Bela to separate from his wife, Maria Laskarina of Nicaea, but was unable to break
up the marriage.
In other major and long-lasting legislation, Andrew issued the Golden Bull, a landmark document, the
Hungarian equivalent of England's Magna Charta, limiting the power of the royalty and reaffirming the
rights of lesser nobility. In this regard, mindful of the confines of space and time of this writing, I found
the historian C. A. Macartney's book, Hungary, a brief history, immensely helpful. I may be paraphrasing
from or referring to this book (particularly pages 27-29) while writing about King Andrew ll's Golden Bull.
Up until 1222, the prerogatives of the kings were not restricted. With Andrew returning home from the
Crusades and finding everything topsy-turvy, the country in shambles and the various levels of nobility in
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
35
near-revolt, he had to find a way, or at least a symbolic way, to submit to certain restrictions on his
freedom to act. Totally new in concept, this was for Andrew "to concede that if he or any of his successors
violated these promises, the prelates and other dignitaries and nobles of the realm should be free to resist
and withstand (Jus resistendi) such violation without imputation of high treason." This remained a
treasured privilege of the Hungarian nation for more than 400 years thereafter.
Another provision was for the king not to appoint foreigners to office without the counsel of the royal council.
One of the famous clauses of the Golden Bull dealt with the status of freemen. These were the commoners
of society who did not have to do work under debt for their Lords. These segments of the population which,
in the past, were required to serv in a military situation, were greatly diminished due to war casualties. The
Golden Bull does not even mention the class as freemen, giving a new role to a newly emerging class, the
"servientes regis" (the king's servants) who will no longer be required to answer the King's call, except in the
case of foreign invasion. In the past some rulers accomplished the replenishment of national defense forces
by promoting heretofore unfree elements, or importing foreign fighters.
The issuance of a Charter, or Golden Bull, became necessary and unavoidable following the visit of a large
number of discontent nobles, the "servientes regis" to Andrew' s court, asking for a document to outline and
confirm their privileges and rights.
Other main points of the document include the following:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
No nobleman may be arrested unfairly, nor can they be oppressed by the wishes of a higher
power.
Noblemen are declared to be exempt from the payment of taxes, nor will money be collected
from their treasuries. Neither will their residences be occupied, nor their villages and these
may only be visited by those who have been invited. No taxes will be levied on the Church.
If any nobleman dies without a male heir, his daughter will receive a quarter of his
possessions; the remainder of his property shall be given to others. But if, as a result of their
deaths they cannot take possession of these properties, then these properties shall pass into
the hands of their closest living relative. If this is not possible, then the King shall inherit them.
If the King wishes to send his armies outside of the Kingdom, the noblemen will not be under
obligation to go with him unless the monarch pays them. However, if an invading army enters
in the Kingdom, all of them must serve to expel it.
The Hungarian Palatine (governor) may judge everyone in the Kingdom without any
differentiation, but he cannot try any nobleman without the King's approval.
Hungarian properties may not be given to foreigners.
No title or public charge can be inherited.
No one, besides the Palatine, the governors of Croatia and Slavonia, the King and the Queen
Consort can have more than one title or honor.
Neither Jew, nor lsmaelite can hold a public position. The Nobles of the Chamber, those working
with monies, tax collectors and toll-keepers may only be Hungarian noblemen.
In order for this document to be lawful and put into use for the future, seven copies, each
sealed with the Golden Seal, will be made of it. The first will be sent to the Pope, the second
to the Knights of St. John, the third to the Templar Knights, the fourth to the King, the fifth to
the Archbishop of Esztergom, the sixth to the Archbishop of Kalocsa and the seventh to the
Hungarian Palatine so that these writings won't be falsified or confused.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
36
The Charter was made necessary by the emergence of a middle class in the nobility, which was unusual in
the nation's feudal system. The two classes of nobility: hereditary and middle class, were increasingly at
odds with each other. The Charter sought to take the wind out of such antipathy.
In 1223 Andrew's son, Bela took back his wife despite his father's wishes and escaped to Austria, fearing
Andrew's anger and reaction. With the mediation of Pope Honorius Ill, however, they came to an
agreement and Bela took over the governments of Slavonia, Dalmatia and Croatia. Andrew, on the other
hand, made peace with Duke Leopold VI of Austria. In an important legislative move, in 1224 Andrew
issued his Diploma Andreanum which assured the Transylvanian Saxons of their special privileges,
including autonomy under the King's rule as overlord. The Diploma is considered the oldest law of
autonomy in the world. Andrew expelled the Teutonic Knights from Transylvania.
The rest of his life was troublesome, beginning with his relations with the children.
My readers may or may not recall that King Andrew II had been involved in a military campaign in Halych,
later known as Galicia to assist Prince Danylo to regain the throne of that principality after having been
thrown off it by internal and external enemies of the Prince. In September 1213, however, Andrew
interrupted his campaign when he heard through a messenger that his troublesome wife, Gertrude of
Merania (roughly today's Montenegro) had been murdered. (See the following story on Bank ban.) Upon his return to Buda Castle, Andrew ordered the execution of the leader of the conspiracy involved in his
wife's murder, but forgave other members of the group. His son, Bela, resented his father's decision because
he wanted revenge for his mother's murder. Even later in his life when he wanted to take revenge, it was his
sister, the later St. Elizabeth, who argued against it. (For the sake of accuracy let me interject that while
Andrew spared the life of most involved in the conspiracy, he had its leader, Peter, impaled on a log, and over
the years confiscated the land holdings of most of the conspirators.)
Just to be sure that Bela has a chance to succeed his father, Andrew had the 8-year-old Bela crowned in
1214 as King Bela IV, some 21 years before he actually stepped onto the thrown. How they "divided"
governing and avoided the confusion over the two royal titles may be the root of some of the problems
historians enumerate as causes for the discord within the royal family.
In this connection I must mention my late mother-in-law's often-cited dictum: "Ket dudas egy csardaban
nem fer meg." (There is no room for two bagpipe players in one pub.) - Let me add also that after
Gertrude's murder, Andrew married Yolanda de Courtenay in 1215. She was the daughter of the Emperor
of Constantinople. Andrew and Yolanda had a daughter, Violant, who would become the wife of King
James I of Aragon. With Yolanda's death in 1234, Andrew married for the third time and took for his wife
Beatrice d'Este who was 30 years his junior. They had a son they named Stephen, who would eventually
become the father of King Andrew Ill of Hungary.
Bela stepped up his campaign to regain some of the territory for the royal domains which King Andrew
had granted to some of his supporters in the earlier years of his reign. Andrew was opposed to his son's
policy and removed Bela's authority, making him prince over Transylvania, while his younger son,
Coloman, became the governor of the provinces which Bela had formerly controlled. Once again, Andrew
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
37
II intervened in Halych when Prince Danylo expelled Andrew's son Coloman from the principality, while
Frederick II, the Duke of Austria marched against the western borders of Hungary in 1230. Despite initial
success on the part of Andrew II to dissuade Frederick II from further skirmishes, the attacks continued
for several years until,in 1235, Andrew pushed Frederick back to Vienna and made him pay a monetary
fine to secure peace between the two nations.
The 4th Council of the Lateran of 1225 severely curtailed the employment of Jews and Muslims in royal
households. Andrew II, in contrast with the Council's order, often employed such people in his service, drawing
the anger of Pope Gregory IX on himself. Ultimately, the pope won the argument and Andrew was obligated
to write a supplement to the Golden Bull prohibiting the employment of non-Christians on his properties and
authorizing the Archbishop of Esztergom to punish the king who would ignore the dictum. (Indeed, Andrew
was excommunicated by Bishop John of Bosnia in 1234 for breaking the Council's rule, and Andrew found
himself appealing to the Pope to vacate the bishop's dictum.)
In the same year another tragedy struck. Andrew's youngest son, Prince Andrew II of Halych died in a
battle with Prince Danylo of Halych and with this military defeat Hungarian supremacy over the
principality terminated. - Andrew and his first wife Gertrude's third child, Elisabeth, lived a life dedicated to
her religion even while she was married to Landgraf Louis IV of Thuringia. On May 28, 1235 Elizabeth was
canonized by Pope Gregory IX and is venerated as Saint Elizabeth of Hungary. (See the following story on St.
Elizabeth.)
King Andrew II died on September 21, 1235 at the age of 58.
Saint Elizabeth of Hungary
She was the third child and second daughter of King Andrew II and Queen Gertrud of Hungary, born in
Sarospatak on the eastern part of the country in 1207 AD. At a very young age she was sent (for education,
they said) to the court of the Landgrave of Thuringia and (unbelievably!) she was engaged to the Lord's infant
son. When she was 14 years of age, she married Ludwig IV. They had 3 children.
The court of Thuringia was a magnificent place with Wartburg castle at its center, where a lavish lifestyle
was the norm which turned Elizabeth off as she would have rather done pious and charitable deeds.
Ludwig and Elizabeth visited Hungary shortly after their marriage, but Ludwig was often away from
Wartburg on official business for Emperor Frederick II. During one of those trips in the spring of 1226,
floods and famine and pestilence devastated Thuringia. Elizabeth had a 28-bed hospital built at the foot
of the castle which she visited daily, distributing medicines and food to the needy. Elizabeth's fame as an
angel of mercy to the poor stems from this time in her life.
Her kind and pious husband died in Sicily on the way to join a Crusade with Emperor Frederick. Elizabeth
and her three children were then cruelly driven from the palace by her brother-in-law and many people
whom she had helped also turned against her. The bishop of Bamberg, her maternal uncle, tried to help
her, but she voluntarily renounced the grandeur into which she had been born and withdrew to a small
house in the city of Marburgh. She lived there in utmost poverty, distributing to the poor the remnants of
her inheritance.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
38
She is often represented in art with an apron full of roses which were transformed from loaves of bread to
conceal when she was questioned as to what she was carrying in her apron. Her son gained control of the
Thuringian government and asked Elisabeth to return to the Court. She died on November 19th, 1231 and was
canonized by Pope Gregory IX on May 27th, 1235. Soon after her death miracles of healing began to occur at
her grave in Marburgh.
Bánk bán
Ban (pronounced baahn) in Hungarian is an official title, much similar to a viceroy or palatine (governor).
Around this particular ban, called Bank, a very powerful story was created and an opera written by famous
Hungarian musician Ferenc Erkel, composer of the Hungarian National Anthem. The work uses a libretto by
Beni Egressy based on a stage play by Jozsef Katona. The synopsis of the opera is on a separate sheet
attached hereto. The main story is based on the assassination of Queen Gertrud, wife of King Andrew II in
1213. (The opera's premier was on March 9, 1861 and is played at the Budapest Opera on practically all
the national holidays and commemorative events. I have interesting items to add to the story with which
we dealt on page 36 of this booklet and I am eager to share it with you.
As I pointed out earlier, Gertrude was not a particularly beloved queen in Hungarian history, mostly
because the queen generously spent the royal treasury on her expatriate friends and relatives from
German Merania. One of the particularly fortunate beneficiaries of the queen's prodigal spending was
one of Gertrude's brothers, the 8-year-old Bertold. Although he had no ecclesiastic training and wasn't
even of the proper age, but Bertold, through his sister's influence, persuaded King Andrew II to bestow on
him the title and position of Archbishop of Kalocsa. Bertold was also interested in securing a lay title and
through more shenanigans he obtained an appointment as "ban" of Croatia.
Furthermore, the king managed to confirm Bertold's position by the Pope as well. Another shady story
involved Queen Gertrude's two other brothers who were suspected of the murder of the Svabian king
Phillip. The two culprits fled to Hungary where they found temporary shelter in the Queen's court.
Eventually, though, they moved on, taking with them much of the Queen's treasury.
Enter into this scene the character of Otto, another of Gertrud's brothers, who was most likely born in the
fertile mind of the writer Katona, with a mission to create an unforgivable crime, that is to subdue and
deflower the beautiful wife of the Ban Bank who was away with the King on a crusade. In this manner the
rape of both the wife and the homeland could be combined in this tragic opera.
Before I continue with the story and set up the scene for the opera, I want to illustrate the richness of the
Hungarian language from the 16th century in the story written by the contemporary writer Gaspar Heltai. It
is regrettable that many, probably most, of my readers will fail to understand and appreciate the beauty of
the text, nevertheless, I feel compelled to first tell part of the story in old-Hungarian, followed by the
proper English translation. Here it goes:
....."(Az kiraly) Ez idore orszagaban egy jeles ferfiut, bizonyos Bank bant hagya helytartoul. Azonkozben
juta oda az kiralyunk asszonnak otsse, hogy vigasztalna nenjet, mierthogy tavol vala az ura. Vala pedig az
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
39
Bank bannak felesege ki szep szomely vala es igen jambor, azert nyajaskodik vala az kiralyne asszon igen
oromest velle. Ezt igen kezde az kiralnenak az otsse szeretni. Annyira, hogy majd meghal vala miatta.
Annakutana behivata az kirayne asszon az Bank ban feleseget egy rejtekhazba es ott lon a kiralne asszon
otsse is. Azonkozben az kiralne asszon kijove az hazbol es tsak ketten maradanak a hazban. Mikoron az
jambor Bank bannak felesege megotalmazta vona beszedekkel az o jamborsaga, vegre az kiralne
asszonnak az otsse eroszakot von rajta.
Elhallgata szegen a gonoszsagot. De mikoron egynehan nap mulva az Bank ban jatszadozni akarna
felesegevel, sirni kezdett es azt mondja neki: Ne erj hozzam, nem a felesegedhez nyulsz! Engemet kiralne
asszon melle adtal, de az engemet az otssenek ejtett tsalardsagaval. Ihol vagyok szerelmes uram! Vagy
elversz, vagy megolsz, szabad vagy vele mert eroszakot ton rajtam. Bank ban nagy banataba igen nagy
haragba esek...... Semmikeppen az szornyu bosszusagot nem turhetne Bank, ellenben masodnapra
bemene az kiralde hazaba mintha szoltni akarna velle es kirdnta az hegyes tort es azzal attute az kiralne
asszont es a veres hegyes torrel kijove es mondta az udvarbelieknek: Az Gertrud megcsalta a felesegem
es az otssenek hajtotta, hogy eroszakot muveljen rajta. Am en megolem ot erette....."
And the English translation of the above text:
...."During this time (the king) left an eminent man, a certain Bank ban as caretaker (of the country). In the
meantime the queen's brother arrived to comfort his sister as her husband was away. The ban had a wife
who was a beautiful person and very pious. The queen's brother began to love her so much that he nearly
died over it. After that the queen called the ban's wife into a hidden place and the queen's brother was
there, too. In the meantime the queen left the house and left the two of them in the house. When the
pious wife of the ban tried to defend her honor, nevertheless the queen's brother violated her.
She kept quiet about this wickedness. But when a few days later the ban tried to play with his wife, she
began to cry and said to him: Do not touch me, you are not touching your wife. You left me with the
queen but she deceived me with her brother. Here I am beloved master. Either beat me, or kill me, you
are free to do it because he committed violence on me. In his sadness Bank ban became very angry. He
could not bear this anger, but next day he entered the queen's house as if he wanted to say something to
her and tore the sharp dagger and pierced her with it and with the dagger he came out and said to those
standing around in the court: Gertrud deceived my wife and forced her to her brother so that he could
violate her. Well, I killed her for that..."
This assassination took revenge for the rape of both the innocent Melinda and the beautiful homeland.
But there is an interesting segment in the opera which is not usually discussed. When I was just a young
child, my parents went to attend Bank ban in the Opera. Upon their return I asked them what was
particularly interesting about the opera. My parents explained to me that before these men plot to kill
the queen, they decide to consult the court seer, or fortune-teller. In response to their question whether
they should go ahead with their plan or not, the "witch" hands them her written out response:
A KIRALYNET MEGOLNETEK NEM KELL FELNETEK JO LESZ HA MINDNYAJAN BELEEGYEZTEK EN NEM
ELLENZEM.
TO KILL THE QUEEN IS NOT AN ISSUE TO FEAR IT WILL BE ADVISEABLE IF YOU ALL AGREE I DO NOT OBJECT.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
Bank ban - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Setting: Hungary in the year 1213
Act 1
King Endre II, the monarch of the country, is fighting abroad while Gertrud, his queen, who is of Meranian
birth, plays hostess to the leading members of the Court (in the first place foreigners) at prodigal feasts. Ban
Bank, the king's deputy, is touring the poverty-ridden country while Otto, the Queen's younger brother, is
trying to seduce Bank's beautiful wife Melinda. A group of angry Magyar nobles headed by Ban Petur are
plotting a conspiracy against the queen, anxious for the fate of their homeland and the honour of Bank's wife.
Petur has sent for Bank, hoping to recruit him for their cause. The Ban arrives, but is outraged that his old
friend would dare threaten the throne. When Petur informs him of Otto's advances toward Melinda, however,
Bank promises that he shall attend their meeting.
Act 2
Bank, distraught, prays over his nation and his good name. On the porch of the castle of Visegrad, Tiborc, an
old peasant, tells Bank about the desperate poverty of the entire country, a grave consequence of the wasteful
extravagance of the foreigners, but Bank is so overcome by the tragedy of his own position that he listens
only halfheartedly. Itis revealed that Tiborc, a vassal of the Ban, saved his life at a battle long ago; Bank
promises his aid. Otto, encouraged by the Queen's open approval, attempts to seduce Melinda, without
success. He drugs and rapes her. The desperate woman staggers to her husband half insane with shame. In
his bitter grief Bank blasts a terrible curse at his own son, but then raises to himself the innocent little boy,
giving solace to his wife. Finally, he asks Tiborc to escort Melinda and their little son to their home, a castle in
East Hungary, beyond the River Tisza.
In the throne-room Bank calls the Queen to account for plunging the country into poverty and for the honour of
his betrayed wife. Gertrud counters him with contemptuous scorn and draws a dagger. Bank wrests the
dagger from her hand, and in the scuffle, she is fatally stabbed. Bank laments over the actions he has been
forced to take.
Act 3
Tiborc reaches the bank of the Tisza River with Melinda and her little son. In a fit of insanity, Melinda throws
herself into the waves together with her son, within view of the helpless old peasant.
Endre II returns. Standing by his queen's funeral bier, he calls to the nobles to account for the murder, who
deny having had a part in the assault on the Queen. Bank, however, admits that, convinced of her guilt which
was known to all, he killed the Queen deliberately. King and Viceroy face each other with swords almost drawn
when Tiborc arrives with the corpses of Melinda and the child. The sword drops from Bank's grip, and he
collapses over the bodies of his wife and son. The nobles and retainers pray for the repose of all the dead.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%Alnk_b%C3%Aln
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
40
On first sight the conspirators think it means a go-ahead. On second thought they are concerned that the
response contains no punctuation which could radically change its meaning:
A KIRALYNET MEGOLNETEK NEM KELL. FELNETEK JO LESZ. HA MINDNYAJAN BELEEGYEZTEK, EN NEM,
ELLENZEM.
TO KILL THE QUEEN IS NOT AN ISSUE. TO FEAR IT WILL BE ADVISEABLE. IF YOU ALL AGREE, I DO NOT,
OBJECT!
Well, this is clearly an advice against the assassination. Or is it? What if the punctuation is changed:
A KIRALYNET MEGOLNETEK NEM KELL FELNETEK. JO LESZ. HA MINDNYA.JAN BELEEGYEZTEK, EN NEM
ELLENZEM.
TO KILL THE QUEEN IS NOT AN ISSUE TO FEAR, ITWILL BE ADVISEABLE. IF YOU ALL AGREE, I DO NOT
OBJECT.
What to do? Well, we know from history that they went ahead and took revenge. What is even more
remarkable that I must have carried this little puzzle in my head for some 70 years. And I have been very
careful about punctuation ever since ....
BELA IV (IV. Bela, 1235 -1270)
Reviewing the story of the descendants of Arpad, King Bela IV is bound to come up. He was one of the
main players in Hungarian history of the 13th century not only because of his predecessor, his father the
famed King Andrew II and his grandfather King Bela Ill, but also because of the Mongolian invasion during
his reign where much of the credit for rebuilding the country is due to Bela IV.
As we have seen above, Bela was the oldest son of King Andrew and the Meranian Queen Gertrude. Born in
1206, he was only 7 years old when a group of conspirators killed his mother, angry at lavishly spending the
royal treasury on her visiting relatives and friends. When King Andrew II punished only the instigator of the
conspiracy and not the rest of party, Bela developed a deep resentment against his father which lasted for the
rest of their lives. To keep him at a relative distance from the Court at Buda, King Andrew granted Bela the
governorship of Slavonia. To guarantee his succession to the throne, Bela was crowned at an early age as
Rex junior of Hungary.
His father had led the 5th Crusade to the Holy Land and on his return arranged for the marriage of his son
to Maria Laskarina, a daughter of the Emperor Theodore I Laskaris of Nicaea. The marriage took place
when Bela was 14 in 1220, but two years later the king demanded that they separate. Pope Honorius Ill
denied the marriage to be declared null and void, so Bela reunited with his wife and escaped to Austria,
fearing his father's anger. Due to more negotiations and mediation by the Pope, Bela was again granted
control over Slavonia, plus Dalmatia and Croatia. In 1226 Bela was given the governorship of Transylvania
as well with the title of Duke.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
41
Bela's relationship with his father worsened during Andrew's second marriage to Yolanda de Courtenay,
and after her death to Beatrice D'Este, who was 30 years the king's junior. Bela's household contained
some famous people so let's deal with it. His oldest sister, Anna Maria, became the wife of Tzar Ivan Asen of
Bulgaria; his younger sister, Elizabeth became the wife of Landgraf Louis IV of Thuringia and was
canonized as St. Elizabeth of Hungary in 1235. His younger brother Coloman became king of Halych (later
Galicia) and the youngest, Andrew, became Prince of the Halych principality. Bela's father's second
marriage to Yolanda produced a child, Violant who would become the wife of King James of Aragon, while
the third marriage to Beatrice D'Este produced one son, Stephen, who would be the father of Andrew Ill of
Hungary (1290 to 1301), the last member of the Arpad dynasty on the paternal side.
After King Andrew ll's death Bela ascended to the throne and was crowned (for the second time) in
Szekesfehervar on October 14, 1235, by the Archbishop Robert of Esztergom. One of his first acts as king
was to order the arrest of his father's chief advisor and Bela's young stepmother, accusing them of
adultery. Anxious to restore respect for the crown, he burnt the seats in his court, forcing his advisers to
stand while discussing business with him. He also confirmed the charter of major towns, among them
Szekesfehervar and Esztergom.
The Mongol invasion
Bela sent Friar Julian to the eastern frontiers looking for Hungarians from Arpad's time. Upon his return in
1239, Friar Julian warned King Bela of an impending attack by Mongolian tribes. In response, Bela granted
asylum to 40,000 Cumans, a group of people with nomadic culture from Russia later referred to as "kun", to
help him fight the Mongols, but the new settlers caused much conflict with the Hungarians.
The Mongolian hordes, under Batu Khan, managed to break through the Carpathian mountains on March
12, 1241 before Bela had a chance to build his defenses. Also, a typical Hungarian curse of jealousy came
into play when the barons, on whom Bela counted to help him fight the Mongols, refused to mobilize
without being granted more independent concessions. They demanded the expulsion of the Cumans and
when that was not granted, they broke into the house where the Cuman leadership, particularly their
princes, held a council. The Hungarian barons and their soldiers murdered the princes and their families
which made the Cumans turn against the Hungarians and destroyed the forces of the Bishop of Csanad
which were marching to help the King.
Bela lost his most valuable allies in the Cumans, but still led an army of 100,000 against the Mongols. The
battle took place on the plains of Mohi on April 11, 1241 and ended in the virtual annihilation of the
Hungarian forces. Bela first fled to today's Bratislava and from there to Hainburg where, to top the
disaster by humiliation, Duke Frederick II of Austria seized the Hungarian treasury and forced Bela to cede
three western counties to Austria. Bela then fled to Zagreb and sought, through his envoys, the
assistance of Emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX to fight the Mongols. None from the West
provided any assistance.
The Mongols laid complete waste to the country, killing, burning and looting. Historical estimates claim
the loss of one million, tantamount to half of the country's population. This eventually led to inviting
immigrants, mostly from Germany, to resettle the devastated country. Pest, on the left bank of the
Danube, was burnt and it didn't take long before the Mongols were able to cross the frozen river to
devastate Buda as well. They suspected that King Bela IV was hiding in Croatia, particularly in Zagreb
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
42
which the Mongols leveled, but Bela's hideout was in the Adriatic island of Rab. As the Mongols were in
hot pursuit, Bela fled to Spolato (today's Split) and from there to the well-fortified island of Trogir in
Dalmatia. But by this time the Mongol leader's army was depleted and exhausted as the Croatians were
better able to fight in mountainous territory than the cavalry-based Mongol forces and they did not pursue to
capture the Hungarian king. Legend has it that the king offered his 9th child, Margaret, to God as a nun
where she would pursue a pious life in a monastery if God would relieve Hungary of the Mongols' cursed
invasion. (See following story about St. Margaret of Hungary.)
Other Mongol forces were on the outskirts of Vienna, when news got to them about the death of the Grand
Khan in Asia. They pulled out of Europe to elect a new Grand Khan which gave Central Europe a temporary
breather. King Bela ordered the construction of hundreds of stone castles and fortresses which would
eventually play a major role in standing up to the Ottoman invasion in the 15th century. The downside of
this was that the cost of building the country's defenses indebted the king to the feudal landlords, thus
weakening the king's power. Bela encouraged the towns to build walls around themselves for better
protection against any invaders.
Bela also took the offensive against Duke Frederick II of Austria and reoccupied Sopron and Koszeg,
compelling the Duke to return the 3 counties he had the gall to take from Hungary during the Mongol
invasion. The Duke died during the battle at the Leitha (Lajta) river. Just as an adjunct piece of information let
me add that with his death the male line of the House of Babenberg became extinct and struggle
commenced in Austrian politics for the rule over that country. In Hungarian politics the Arpad dynasty
was inching at that point toward extinction and it will be interesting (at least for me and my readers) to
follow the political struggles for the next several hundred years as the succession to St. Stephen's crown is
pursued.
In 1249 rumors hopped the Carpathian mountains with the news that the Mongols were preparing another
European campaign. The actual attack would have to wait until 1285 when the Tatars, the so-called Golden
Horde under the command of Nagai Khan invaded Hungary from the East, devastating much of the eastern
provinces of the country, but withdrew soon thereafter. This attack had to do with the tragic mismanagement
of international politics by King Ladislaus IV, whose story we will deal with as the timeline permits.
Bela decided to intervene in the above-mentioned internal struggle in Austria. He arranged for Gertrude,
the niece of the deceased Duke Frederick II to marry Roman Danylovich ,a son of Prince Danylo of Halych
whose name had come up so often in the story about the northern principality. What was Bela doing in
this regard is not entirely clear, but he invaded Austria in 1252 and got as far as Vienna. To complicate
matters, King Ottokar II of Bohemia, whose wife was Margaret, the wife of the deceased Duke Frederick II
also declared his claim in this matter of royal succession. Bela met with King Ottokar in Pressburg
(today's Pozsony) and negotiated peace with the proviso that Bela would gain the Duchy of Styria and the
city of Wiener Neustadt (where my parents had spent their honeymoon nearly 700 years later).
With internal struggles ongoing for the control of Central European countries, Bela had his oldest son,
Stephen, crowned junior king in 1246 but was reluctant to share the power with him. What a disastrous
mess! Stephen recruited an army against his father (can you imagine what that cost the royal treasury?!)
which persuaded Bela to cede the government of Transylvania to Stephen in 1258. That did not satisfy
Stephen's hunger for more adventures and greater control under his wing. You'll recall that Bela had
gained control of the Duchy of Styria as negotiated with King Ottokar of Bohemia (today's Czech republic),
appointing his son Stephen as Duke. But the Styrians would have rather had Ottokar to rule over them
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
43
and rose up against the Duke. Bela was forced to come to the aid of his son and renounce control of Styria
after he lost a battle with the King of Bohemia. (Ever since then the mention of Bohemia generates antipathy
in the minds of Hungarians.)
Bela's relationship with his son Stephen further deteriorated and they were facing a military confrontation
when the Archbishop Philip of Esztergom negotiated a peace treaty between them. Bela and Stephen signed
the agreement whereby Stephen would gain control of the kingdom East of the river Danube. But the
animosity between father and son continued to the point where Stephen attached his mother and sister's
estates to his domain, which drew Bela's ire and he sent troops against his son, capturing Stephen's wife and
son (Bela's grandson) as well. Stephen managed to counter-attack and won over Bela's troops in the Battle
of lsaszeg (March, 1265.) Ultimately, they signed a peace on Rabbits Island (Nyulak szigete, which played a
role in daughter (Saint) Margaret's life). Still, Bela did not trust his son. As his life was fading, Bela allowed
his favorite daughter, Anna, to exercise more influence over him. In his last will,Bela entrusted his family and
his followers to King Ottokar II of Bohemia, because he did not trust Stephen.
King Bela IV, the so-called "second founder of Hungary", died May 3, 1270 and was buried in Esztergom.
This was Bela's wish while he was alive that he should be buried in that city's Franciscan church. The red
marble burial site was constructed to be large enough to contain the remains of the king and his family.
Construction was complete in 1269 and shortly after the King's death in 1270 his wife and his favorite son,
Prince Bela, died as well. The three of them were buried together in the tomb. The Archbishop Philip had
the King's remains removed and re-buried in St. Adalbert cathedral in Esztergom. A petition to re-unite
the family in the original tomb was approved by the Holy See and in 1275 Bela was given his final wish to be
buried with his family.
As we shall see in the continuing story, Hungary suffered near-anarchy in subsequent years. In a nostalgic
gesture about Bela's reign, a poem, written in Latin, was carved onto his grave, which is reproduced here,
together with Laszlo Gereb's Hungarian translation as follows:
Latin:
Hungarian:
,,Aspice rem caram:
,,Maria-oltaron, nezd, nyugszik a sirban e harom:
tres cingunt Virginis aram: Rex, Dux, Regina, quibus
Bela, neje s herceg - orvendjenek ok az egeknek!
adsint Gaudia Trina Oum licuit, tua dum viguit
Mig lehetett, ult tronja felett a kiraly hatalomban:
rex Bela, potestas, Fraus latuit, pax firma fuit,
Csalfa lapult, szent beke virult, becsulet vala ottan "
regnavit honestas "
Saint Margaret of Hungary
I was a teenager when I read Geza Grdonyi's novel about St.Margaret, entitled: "lsten rabjai", or "The
captives of God." I was most impressed with the story as to how King Bela IVasked God to save Hungary
from further devastation of the Tartar invasion if he would dedicate his daughter's life to the service of
God in a monastery. I was also most impressed by the ceremony when they cut Margaret's long tresses
and stuffed her pillowcase with it, over which Margaret shed much tears.
Margaret was the 9th child (8th daughter) of King Bela IV and Maria Laskarina. She was born on January 27,
1242 in the middle of the terrible devastation brought on Hungary by the Mongol invasion which had
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
44
forced her parents to flee to the fortress of Klis in Croatia. (In those days Croatia was a part of Bela's
kingdom.) With the end of the Mongol invasion her parents returned to Buda, but Margaret was entrusted
at age 3 to the Dominican monastery in Veszprem in Western Hungary.
At age 9 she was transferred to the Benedictine monastery, which her parents had founded, on Nyulak
Szigete (Rabbit Island) situated on an island in the middle of the Danube River in today's Budapest. With her
attaining fame in Hungarian history, the island was renamed Margaret island where the ruins of the monastery
still exist. As a matter of fact, during two summers in the early 1940s when we didn't want to be far away
from my father in case Budapest was subjected to Allied bombing raids, my mother and I spent a lovely time
at the Margaret Hotel on Margaret Island. I would ride out daily on my bicycle to make my rounds among the
nearby ruins shaded from the summer heat by ancient trees guarding memories of the convent.
Margaret would remain at the convent until her death living a strict religious life, wearing an iron girdle,
hairshirts and shoes spiked with nails. It is sometimes mentioned by historians that her father had
attempted to commit her to a political marriage to King Ottokar II of Bohemia, but she refused the offer.
Instead, she took solemn vows at age 18. All she knew in her short and harsh life was the service of God as
a nun, fulfilling her father's promise to God on behalf of her homeland. She had plenty of good examples
in front of her as she was the younger sister of St. Kunigunda (Kinga), wife of Prince Boleslaw of Poland, and
blessed Yolanda (sometimes spelled Valenta) of Poland, wife of Duke Boleslaw of Greater Poland.
Through her father, she was the niece of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, wife of Landgraf Louis IV of Thuringia.
She died at the convent on January 18, 1271, at the age of 29.
Much of what we know about her life comes from the Legend of Saint Margaret, a 14th century document
written in the so-called Margaret Codex, and from a legend noted by the Dominican nun Lea Raskay
around 1510. Immediately after Margaret's death seventy-four miracles were attributed to Margaret's
intercession, yet her canonization didn't take place until November 19, 1943 by Pope Pius XII which was a
great spiritual boost for Hungarians embroiled in the midst of World War II. Her remains were given to the
Poor Clares Sisters, and later whatever was preserved was distributed between Esztergom, Gyor and
Pannonhalma.
STEPHEN V (V. lstvan, 1270-1272)
He was the 3th child but first son of King Bela IV, born in October 1239, and crowned first in 1246 as "junior
king", and after his father's death, in 1270. The significant but still pagan Cuman tribes (historians refer to
them currently as the Kuns) were always shadowing the Magyar tribes but were not a part of the
kingdom. To remedy the situation, Stephen's father arranged for Stephen to marry Elizabeth, daughter of
the Cuman chieftain Katen, in 1253.
The "junior king" was getting to be overly brazen toward his father and recruited an army for himself to
force his father to divide the kingdom. Finally, in 1258, Bela IV bestowed upon his son the title of Duke
and put him in charge of Transylvania, and later on as Duke of Styria as well. The latter domain rebelled
against the Hungarian ruler as they preferred to be ruled by Ottokar II of Bohemia. In a battle in July 1260
the Hungarians lost Styria to Ottokar. So much blood spilled for seemingly immaterial causes!
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
45
King Bela IV had another son born to him in 1245 and he clearly favored the younger one also named Bela,
who was promoted to Duke of Slavonia. Stephen once again mounted a campaign to divide the country
between himself and his father and signed an agreement to govern Hungary east of the Danube river,
while Bela remained in the Western part of the country. The enmity between father and son culminated
in a battle in March 1265 with Bela capitulating and formally signing a peace agreement a year later at
the Convent of the Blessed Virgin on Rabbits Island where the future St. Margaret would be spending herlife.
The peace between father and son remained very tentative. When Bela IV died in May 1270, his most
trusted daughter Anna and his favored son Bela sought refuge in the court of King Ottokar II of Bohemia, to
whom Bela IV had entrusted them, simply because he couldn't trust Stephen. To be sure, Anna had taken
the Hungarian royal treasury with her.
In August of that year, after his second coronation, Stephen concluded an alliance with Prince Boleslaw VI
of Poland against Ottokar of Bohemia, probably to dislodge his sister and brother from Ottokar's court.
Stephen fortified his foreign alignments by arranging the marriage of his daughter Maria to King Charles
II of Naples, and his infant son Ladislaus, born in August 1262, to Charles ll's sister Elizabeth. He also came
into the possession of a sign which was considered providential of being the "Scourge of God", supposedly
inscribed on a sword found by a hermit.
Seeking to protect his northern borders, Stephen signed a two-year treaty with King Ottokar II of Bohemia,
however, the wily Czech king didn't honor it. Leading his armies against Hungary, he defeated Stephen in
May 1271. In the treaty following the confrontation with Ottokar, Stephen renounced his claim to the
Hungarian royal treasury which his sister Anna had taken with her.
In the summer of 1272 the king left for Dalmatia to meet the king of Sicily when he was informed that his
10-year-old son, Ladislaus, had been kidnapped by the rebellious "ban" (governor) of Slavonia. Stephen
planned to raise an army to rescue his son, but died on Csepel Island on August 6, 1272. He was buried in
the Dominican church on Margaret Island.
LADISLAUS IV
(IV. Laszlo, 1272-1290)
He was the 5th child and only son of Stephen V and his Cuman (Kun) wife, Elizabeth. Born on August 5,
1262 at Sarospatak, in the course of the civil war between Kings Stephen and Bela, the senior king's troops
occupied the castle where mother and child were staying and Ladislaus was taken (kidnapped?) to Bela's
court. After the conclusion of a peace treaty, Ladislaus was returned to his father's court. In 1269, when
he was only 7 years of age, Ladislaus was betrothed to Elizabeth of Anjou, the daughter of King Charles I
of Naples. They were married a year later! Can you imagine what this had done to the childhood of these
two innocent children?
In 1272 Ladislaus was abducted from his father's court by Joachim Pektar (otherwise known as Gutkeled),
the rebellious ban (governor) of Slavonia. King Stephen, the child's father tried in vain to rescue the child
from captivity in the castle of Koprivnica, but he fell ill and died in August, 1272. Ladislaus, then just 10
years old, was then taken to Szekesfehervar, where Archbishop Philip of Esztergom crowned him with the
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
46
Crown of Thorns, awaiting the time when he would attain adulthood. Until then his Cuman mother,
Elizabeth the Cuman would be making decisions for him.
One of the first actions she took was to divide the major offices of the Court among her favorite people,
including several people of Cuman derivation. Due to her poor governance, several "palace revolutions"
occurred, including the murder of Ladislaus' cousin, Prince Bela of Macso, who held extensive properties
which were then divided among the allied barons. In early 1273, to avenge the Prince's murder, King
Ottokar II of Bohemia, the murdered Prince's brother-in-law, invaded Hungary and occupied Pozsony
(today's Bratislava) and several counties on the northwest corner of the country. In 1274 Joachim Pektar
again managed to abduct Ladislaus, who had to be liberated by Peter Csak, only to face the abduction of
Ladislaus' brother, the 6-year-old Andrew, demanding the division of the country between the two
brothers.
In May, 1277 an assembly composed of representatives of the Church, the nobility and the Cumans declared
Ladislaus of full age to govern. In one of his first acts, Ladislaus formed an alliance with King Rudolph I of
Germany against Ottokar II of Bohemia. In August 1278 their joint forces defeated the Bohemians and
recovered the previously lost territories. King Ottokar lost his life on the battlefield.
All this time Ladislaus alienated both sides of his family and the Hungarian nobility as well by showing
favoritism toward the Cumans, no doubt as a result of his mother's influence who was of Cuman stock. He
did not only surround himself with pagan Cumans, wore Cuman-style clothing in his Court, but deeply hurt
his wife Elizabeth, the daughter of Charles II of Naples, by keeping Cuman concubines. This shameful
behavior got to the Pope's ears who sent a papal legate in 1279 to investigate the accusations against the king
who, by his actions, was undermining Christianity. The king was unwilling (or unable?) to enforce the
demands of the papal legate, resulting in excommunication for Ladislaus IV. To escape the Court's findings,
Ladislaus escaped the hearings and joined the Cuman tribes. Together, they captured and imprisoned the
legate, but Ladislaus himself was captured by the governor of Transylvania, Finta Aba.
Finta, acting for the government, tried to force the Cumans to settle down in designated areas, but the
Cumans revolted and had to be restrained by Ladislaus. Nevertheless, the Cuman leaders saw the futility of
constant warfare and migrations, so they promised to convert to Christianity. In return, they were settled
mainly in the area between the Danube and Tisza rivers. Up to this day there are countless towns and villages
whose names contain the letters k-u-n, referring to their Cuman origins. Among those you'll find Kiskunhalas,
my mother's birthplace. Its literary translation may refer to a place where fishing was good (halas=fishing),
and the qualifier "kis" = small referring to its ties with the Kiskun (Little Cumania) versus the Nagykun
(Greater Cumania).
In 1281 Ladislaus replaced Finta with members of the Koszegi family who had worked with his father
earlier. There were two other uprisings of the Cumans which Ladislaus was successful in suppressing. By
this time Hungary was convulsing in a virtual civil war as one or the other political faction gained power
over the king.
On page 42 we briefly mentioned the inept handling of Ladislaus' foreign policy which resulted in the
second invasion of Tartar forces in 1285. Ladislaus had sponsored the founding of the Principality of
Moldavia (east of the Carpathians) as a buffer against future Tartar/Mongol attacks. The Tatars may have
considered this as an intrusion into their territory and in February, 1285 crossed the Vereczke straits into
Hungary.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
47
The so-called Golden Horde was led by Nogai Khan who ravaged eastern Hungary almost to the Tisza river,
then withdrew.
In September, 1286 Ladislaus made an attempt to separate from his wife, Elizabeth so that he could openly
consort with his Cuman mistress, Edua. To this end, he arrested and imprisoned his wife. A year later he
abducted his sister, who was a nun in the Marian convent where St. Margaret also served earlier, and married
her against her wish to a Czech magnate called Zavis Rozenberka. I suspect he may have been Jewish.
The news reached Archbishop Lodomer of Esztergom who excommunicated the king and even suggested
to the Pope that he should proclaim a crusade against him.
All these royal actions and the turmoil which they caused, threw Hungary into anarchy. The real power rested
in the hands of a few rich and powerful families. Various parts of the country were in the hands of the Koszegi,
Aba, Kan and Csak families. Duke Albert I of Germany led his troops against Hungary and occupied several
counties on its western borders. Ladislaus was unable to control these families but managed to reconcile
with Archbishop Lodomer and also with his wife, Elizabeth. Powerless to overrule the barons and the nobility,
he openly joined the Cumans. The end came on July 10, 1290, when he was killed in his camp at Korosszeg by
Cuman assassins.
ANDREW Ill
(Ill. Andras, 1290-1301)
He was the last male in the Arpa d dynasty. His father was Stephen, the last and posthumous child of King
Andrew II and his third wife, Beatrice D'Este. Born in Venice, Italy in 1265 of Tomasina Morosini, a
descendant of a Venetian patrician family, he was educated in Venice. He received an invitation in 1278, at
age 13, from lvan Koszegi, a wealthy aristocrat in the Transdanubian area of Hungary, while King Ladislaus
IV was still in charge. Andrew claimed the Duchy of Slavonia for himself, but Ladislaus refused him.
Andrew returned to Venice.
His second invitation came in 1290 from lvan Koszegi and Archbishop Lodomer of Esztergom when King
Ladislaus IV was excommunicated. He was offered the crown and accepted it, except that he was arrested
by another Hungarian noble, Arnold Hahot, who handed him over to Duke Albert I of Austria. It is not
clear what his intention was for holding Andrew hostage. Nevertheless, when news reached Andrew that
Ladislaus IV had been murdered, he managed to escape from captivity in Vienna and rushed to Esztergom
where Archbishop Lodomer crowned him with the Holy Crown in July, 1290, just 3 days after the death of
his predecessor.
Andrew was "hastily" married to the Polish Princess Fenenna of Kuyavia. They had one child, Elizabeth, who
became a nun in the Dominican monastery in Toss, Switzerland. Andrew had no other issue.
He faced several contenders for the throne. Furthermore, King Rudolph I of Germany believed that
Hungary should be a part of the Holy Roman Empire, tried to have his son, Duke Albert, accepted as the
legitimate ruler of Hungary. There were others as well, who were hoping to grab this prize. The most
notable was Mary, sister of the assassinated king Ladislaus who, in April of 1291 announced her claim to
the throne. When that went nowhere, she transferred the claim to her son, Charles Martel of Anjou, and
when Charles died, to her grandson Charles Robert.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
48
Andrew didn't waste any time in unifying his country and defending his right to the kingdom. In the spring of
1291 he gained the approval of the assemblies of nobles in Transylvania, first in Oradea (a.k.a. Nagyvarad)
and Alba Julia (a.k.a. Gyulafeherva r). In the fall of that year Andrew forced the Austrian Duke Albert to
renounce his claim to the throne of Hungary. The price of that agreement was the destruction of the Koszegio
family's fortresses on the border between the two countries, which angered the Koszegi, Babonics and
Frangepan families, all beholden to Queen Mary of Naples. When Andrew Ill tried to offer monetary
compensation to Miklos Koszegi, he was captured and had to pay a ransom so that he could
walk free. Andrew could never gain their support.
In 1293 the king invited his mother, Tomasina Morosini to Hungary and with her they gained more
supporters and followers for the King. When the Queen, Fenenna of Kuyavia died in February of 1296,
Andrew took Agnes of Austria, daughter of Duke Albert I of Austria, for his second wife. Particularly
interesting about this is that when Andrew would pass, the little darling queen/consort was given Sopron
County as compensation for supporting a widow. Pozsony being adjacent to Austria, Agnes of Austria would
be granted Austrian administration and Hungary would lose a county (it's only a county, anyway?)
to our neighbors.
Sadly, a new Archbishop was appointed by Pope Benedict VIII in 1298. Archbishop Gergely Bicskei
supported the claim of the Neopolitan Prince Charles Robert, despite the fact that the assembly of prelates,
nobles, even the Saxons and Cumans clearly supported Andrew Ill. In August, 1300, Charles Robert landed
in Split on the Adriatic, and helped by Croatian forces marched into Zagreb. - Andrew's mother died, which
prevented Andrew to immediately counterattack. Moreover, he had an unspecified mortal disease which
eventually killed him on January 14, 1301at Buda castle. With his death, the male
line of the Arpad dynasty died out.
Before we examine the history of Hungary under different future dynasties, let us look at the map from
around 1300 so we can better visualize Hungary's position relative to its neighbors.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
49
Map
2
Central and S.E. Europe showing the area of Hungary during the National Kingdom
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
49
ETHNOGRAPHICAL MIX in historic Hungary
The Cuman people
The name "Cuman" had come up several times in our previous reading. Who were these people, where did
they come from and what happened to them?
The best reference I could find on this subject is that they were a Turkic nomadic people, a part of the
Cuman-Kipchak confederation from the area north of the Black Sea, although originally they are from the
large bend in the Yellow River in China. Their language was an early Turkic variety. They were fierce nomadic
warriors who had exerted considerable influence in the Balkans, particularly in Bulgaria where they
founded three successive Cuman dynasties which played an active role in Byzantium, Serbia and
Hungary. The Hungarians called them "Kun", or Kunok in the plural.
Etymological roots take us back to the word "Kuman" in old Turkic, meaning yellow, referring to their
blond hair. They were tribal people with no central organization, but they created a powerful elite of
warriors, among them the Mamluks. In their continuous migration to the west, they first came into
contact with Russians in the mid-11th century when they devastated and conquered parts of Ukraine. The
Hungarians, under Ladislaus I first came into contact with the Cumans in 1089 and were victorious over
them despite the fact that the Cumans had as their allies a large force of Pechenegs. As the threat of the
Mongol invasion increased, the Cumans asked for asylum behind the Carpathian mountains in Hungary
from King Bela IV in 1229.
Neither the general Hungarian population, nor the nobility were enticed by the King permitting the
Cumans' entry into the country, but the Mongol threat was so great that Bela IV wanted to use them
against the invaders. Regrettably, in 1240 or 41some Hungarian hotheads broke into the Cumans' camp
and murdered their leadership and their families, turning the ire of the Cumans on the Hungarians.
Cuman forces now joined the Mongols inthe devastation of the country in 1241/42.
Following the Mongol invasion, some 80,000 Cumans remained in Hungary and formed two distinct
regions between the rivers Danube and Tisza for their settlement, called Greater and Lesser Cumania
(Nagykunsag & Kiskunsag). My mother's birthplace of Kiskunhalas, as I pointed out on page 46, is just one
of hundreds of places which refers to the Cuman settlements. Those Cumans maintained their autonomy,
their own language and customs well into modern historical times. Their integration was not an easy one
as their fierce and unappealing appearance, pagan religion, attire and hairstyle set them apart from the
rest of Hungarians. As time went on, however, they gained more acceptance and influence over
Hungarian politics, including King Ladislaus IV (1272-1290) who had taken a Cuman wife. Today, the
division between the two ethnic groups is not noticeable.
Attila's Huns
For many centuries historians tried to knead the Huns and the Magyars into the same ethnic mold.
Recently, however, evidence has emerged which assigns distinctive differences to these entities.
Tacitus, the Roman writer and historian makes mention of the Huns first as "Hunnoi" in the first century.
The area east of the Volga river was known then as Scythia. The Huns were nomadic people from that
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
50
area who kept migrating from the Caucasus to Eastern Europe during the first 700 years of the first
millennium. They had a language all their own of which very little has survived, especially since several
different languages were spoken within the Hun Empire. Feared by everyone for their fierce military
force, especially mounted archery, they contributed to the eventual collapse of the Roman Empire as well.
The first accounts of Hunnic devastation is about their confrontation with peoples of the Alan Empire in the
area of the Black Sea in the 4th century A.D. The Alani had occupied the territory between the Volga and
Don rivers, while the Ostrogoths lived between the Don and Dniester rivers, - both of which rivers
featured in news reports during World War II where members of my family had fought the Soviets.
After subjugating both of these peoples, the Huns in 376 A.D. defeated the Visigoths living in the area of
today's Romania. Crossing the Carpathians, they arrived in the Plains of today's Hungary, threatening the
Eastern borders of the Roman Empire. The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus wrote about the Huns in
the early 5th century. According to Marcellinus, the Huns knew nothing about agriculture and kept
moving from pasture to pasture to satisfy the demands of their livestock. By 432 A.D. the leadership of
various Hunnic groups (tribes?) appear to be centralized under king Ruga. After his death he was replaced
by his nephews Bleda and Attila. They negotiated a peace treaty with the Danubian Romans for doubling
their bounty, originally about 660 lbs of gold per year, but the Huns got offended when the Romans did
not live up to the conditions of the treaty and launched an assault over the Romans, advancing almost to
Constantinople.
In or about 445 A.D. Attila is said to have murdered his brother Bleda and continued his attack on the
Roman Empire, reaching Thermopylae in Greece! They financed their military adventures by extracting
tributes in gold from those whom they conquered, as well as plundering and selling their prisoners back
to the Romans.
In 451 Attila attacked Gaul (France) but suffered his first defeat on the Catalaunian Planes (the battle of
Chalons) at the hands of Roman and Visigoth forces. The following year Attila invaded northern Italy
supposedly to collect on the marriage proposal of the Emperor's daughter Honoria, but famine and
pestilence drove them back. Even Pope Leo I met Attila at the Po river and was instrumental in dissuading
him to sack Rome. There are some unconfirmed stories about the Pope raising the crucifix to Attila which
mesmerized the Hun leader and he withdrew his forces.
It's fascinating to consider how these two leaders, the Pope and Attila conversed. Well, it was easier than
one thinks. At age 12 Attila was exchanged for a Roman boy to learn Roman customs and learn Roman
culture. It is assumed that he picked up some of the language, too.
In 453 Attila died and is said to be buried in or near the Tisza river. Search for his remains and his famed
sword has been ongoing for centuries. The circumstances of his death vary, some saying he died on his
wedding night of a massive nosebleed in a state of inebriation. Others claim that lldiko, his beautiful Goth
bride stabbed him to death. In Attila's death the Huns lost the one unifying force over them. In 455 they
suffered a major defeat in Pannonia {today's Hungary) and the various groupings of Hunnic people
gradually retreated and disintegrated as an ethnic group.
The Magyars came from the area of the Black Sea as well, but in a different time period. The only
connection between the two groups may be the Szekelys, whose origins we discuss next.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
51
The Székelys
The Szekelys, or Szeklers (Latin: Siculi) were not part of the group of Magyars who settled Hungary in the
8th century. The descent of the Szekelys from the Huns does not hold water, although some scientists
proposed that idea. More to the point is the recently held view that they were part of the Avar confederation
from way back in the 5th century, which disintegrated with the Hungarian conquest. This ethnic group has
lived more or less isolated for centuries in the Eastern Carpathian mountains and were used by Hungarian
kings simply to guard the borders to the East.
Their language is largely understood even by newcomers. I was a first-hand witness to it when, in June,
1943, my parents and I spent a summer vacation in the Southeastern part of Szekely land (Szekelyfold) in
Kovaszna. When the landlady, from whom we rented a villa in the village, offered us "pityoka" for lunch,
we had to ask what she meant. In fact, she wanted to serve us potatoes which is "krumpli" in everyday
Hungarian. (The high-class word for it is "burgonya.")
Szekely people have developed a mind of their own and are known for peculiar interpretation of
situations. Here are a couple of examples without crossing the line of decency:
The old Szekely goes out to the backyard in the night to take a leak. When he comes back into the house,
his pant legs are all wet. His wife asks: "Is it raining?" The Szekely replies: "Wind is blowing."
Picking fruit in the orchard a Szekely boy asks his father: "What is going to happen to all this fruit?" The
father: "If your mother recovers from her illness, preserves. If she does not, brandy."
Since the Trianon Treaty of 1920, all of Transylvania has been attached to Romania, except for a couple of
years toward the end of WW II when Hungary reclaimed half of it for herself. (A 2011 census counted
1,237,000 ethnic Hungarians living in Romania.) Today, Szekelys live mostly in three counties of
Transylvania: Harghita, Covasna and Mures. Transylvania, but especially Szekely land, has been a target of
Romanianization. Numbering about 860,000 people, the Szekelys are a distinct minority group of which the
European Union had taken note. Their request for an autonomous Szekely land has been denied by
Romanian authorities, including restricted use of their language and even vernacular use in their religion,
which flies in the face of international laws.
As a child, I read several novels set in Szekely village culture, written by folklorist Elek Benedek, novelist
Jozsef Nyiro and others. Blessed with unbelievably natural beauty of their land and the fierce independent
spirit of its people, Szekelys are a special jewel in the extended version of St. Stephen's crown.
The Jász people
I have selected just one more ethnic minority, which is the Jasz people numbering about 85,000,living in a
450 square mile territory just east of Budapest, on the Hungarian Plain (Alfold). The area is called the
Jaszsag, and its main town is called Jaszbereny. Many smaller villages indicate their Jassic origins,
particularly Jaszkarajeno, where my mother and two of her sisters were interned during the Communist
regime as punishment for my and my father's desertion from Hungary.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
52
Not to confuse the issue, but in ancient times the Jaszsag was settled by Celts and was part of the Dacian
Kingdom in the first century B.C. A hundred years later a Sarmatian tribe known as the Lazyges settled in
this region, but there is no evidence of a connection between the Lazyges and the Jasz people. The Jassic
people are said to be of Ossetian (Iranian) origin, and their basic Ossetian dialect is extinct. Like the Szekelys,
they were not a part of the original Magyar conquest led by Arpad. They are said to be a nomadic tribe
which settled in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary during the 13th century. Their ancestors can be traced
back the North Caucasus, now mixed with other peoples forming the present Ossetes. The Jasz people came
more of less together with the Cuman people, fleeing the Mongolian invasion during King Bela IV's rule. They
enjoyed Jasz regional autonomy until 1876 when the area was incorporated into a much larger county,
called Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok, which gives away its origins relative to the Cuman people.
THE 11th and 12th CENTURIES
With Hungary on our minds, we tend to focus on historical developments in what is known as Central
Europe, while important events took place elsewhere in the world which cannot be ignored even by a
treatise on Hungarian kings.
Historians like to refer to the period following the dissolution of the Roman Empire in 476 A.D. as the Middle
Ages followed by 1,000 years to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the Renaissance ushered in the
"modern period". To me, being perhaps a little bit prejudiced, the Middle Ages ended with Prince Arpad's
arrival in the Carpathian basin at the end of the 7th and the beginning of the 8th century. That still gave plenty
of time for momentous events to fill the New Middle Ages, while Arpad and his Magyar tribes opened the "Age
of the Hungarians". Surely, the old Middle Ages were still filled with Charlemagne laying the foundations of
the Holy Roman Empire under the German king Otto; the Danish Vikings transitioning into the Norman
conquest of England and one of their tribes, the Rus, giving their name to Russia, while Hugh, Duke of
Francia with his short cape founded the Capetian dynasty as he contrived to have himself elected King of
France in 987. By that time the former threat of Magyar incursions stopped with their defeat in 955 A.D. at
the battle of Lechfeld near Augsburg.
But the Magyar tribes who created the kingdom of Hungary ruled the calendar of events for several
centuries with major outcomes in Central Europe under the Arpad dynasty from 895 to the death of King
Andrew Ill in 1301. We already discussed, however briefly, the events of the 10th century on pages 21
and 22. It ended with the time when King (Saint) Stephen established the presence of the kingdom of
Hungary.
The 11th century, which is under our microscope today, surely started with the Christianization of Hungary
under St. Stephen, crowned by the Apostolic crown sent to him by the Pope and continued in Central
Europe when King St. Ladislaus and King Coloman changed the map of the Balkans with their expansionist
policies. In 1002 Leif Ericsson's expedition managed to get to the shores of North America, but the focus
was on how Hungary would fit into the European community. The Danish Canute, king of England (after
defeating Edmund Ironside in 1016), Denmark and Norway made his mark on British history and prepared
the way for William the Conqueror, first Norman king, to be crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1066. The
first Crusade was launched in 1096 under the command of the Duke of Lorraine.
And as a former
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
53
Cistercian student, I must not forget that the Monastery of Citeaux and the Abbey of Clairvaux was built at
the end of the 11th century under the oversight of St. Bernard.
It can be assumed that the Hungarian Court would know practically nothing of those happenings a
thousand miles or more from the country's borders. News traveled on horseback in those days. The
Hungarian kings were busy establishing themselves in a basically "foreign" environment by giving away
their daughters to wed neighboring kings and princes. In many cases the tragedy was that no sooner was a
peace pact signed, the agreement was broken and Hungarians had to chase the invaders back to where
they came from. But all this seemed to be inevitable given the sheer location of the country where in
previous times peoples of different civilizations, like the Romans, the Huns, Pechenegs, Ava rs and others
came and went with the flow of times. The great migration of peoples has a mesmerizing effect on those
who are involved in it. "We will find richer pastures on the other side of that hill..." Permanence to the
Carpathian basin began with the resettling of Magyar tribes on the Great Plains between the Danube and
Tisza rivers. And still, in centuries to come, there would be enemies who considered this territory a
crossroads to Western civilization, sending their hordes of Mongols, Tartars, Khazars, Ottoman Turks and
Slavs to engulf the Hungarian plains on the way to Vienna. The sole obstacle in their path were the
Hungarians who shed their blood in the defense of their religion and culture to protect the West.
The 12th century brought changes in the whole of Europe, the effects of which can be traced, in part, to
the invention of a different kind of plough. The new, curved plough not only dug deep into the soil, but it
also turned it over, creating a much more fertile environment for seeds to grow up to five times more
than in previous times. This invention may have ended the population's fear of famine, yet in a few more
centuries will lead to the pressures of urbanization, commerce and finance. It is interesting to consider
that about 600 years later the American president Thomas Jefferson also experimented with a similar
design to feed his expanding household, family, slaves and freemen building Monticello.
In the middle of the century Genghis Khan founded the Mongol empire which would be a threat for a
hundred years or more to peoples on this side of the Ural mountains. Within the Carpathian basin the
booklover King Coloman, one of the most learned individuals among the leaders of Europe, established a
splendidly appointed royal court and pushed his influence through the Balkans to the shores of the blue
Adriatic sea. Several foreign armies traipsed through Hungary as part of the Crusades to liberate the Holy
Land of unholy enemies. King Bela Ill's court in 1173 was considered most brilliant in Europe and helped
establish the country's respect throughout the Continent.
In Italy the campanile was built in 1174 at Pisa, but with time it would start to lean and provide a favorite
landmark for tourists. Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria defeated the Crusaders in an 1187 battle,
recapturing Jerusalem and Palestine after 88 years of foreign rule. The celebrated Holy Roman Emperor,
Frederick (the Red Beard) Barbarossa led the Third Crusade against him in 1189, in which the future Saint
Francis of Assisi also participated. Barbarossa died the following year of drowning.
The 13th century was about to come on the horizon, with its horrendous exposure to the Mongol invasion,
which we shall examine next.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
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Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
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54
THE HOUSE OF ANJOU
With the extinction of the Árpád dynasty, the ranking orders of the nobility went looking for alternate
selections for the throne. The Angevin line was associated with the female descendants of Arpad. Angevin
stands for the House of Anjou of Frankish origin who had had a long history in governing parts of the Holy
Land. Not to belabor the point, but as I pointed out in my August, 2011writing about the 1848 Hungarian
Revolution under the title: Cause and Effect, in numerous instances the zeal of attaining the throne of
Hungary went from tragic to bizarre.
A refresher
Hungarian history, at times, becomes a bit convoluted. Therefore, I believe a little refresher would be in order
as we look at the succession of the Arpad dynasty by the House of Anjou.
Going back to the rule of Ladislaus IV (page 45), son of King Stephen V and his Cuman wife, Elizabeth,
Ladislaus alienated not only his family but also the Hungarian nobility by showing special preference for
the (largely} pagan Cumans and was even excommunicated by the Archbishop of Esztergom for his
immoral ways. The country was mostly in the hands of some influential families, such as the Koszegis,
Abas, Kans and Csaks, which certainly did not add to the unity needed to govern. The end came for
Ladislaus IV in 1290 when he was killed in his camp by Cuman assassins.
The next and last king from the Árpád dynasty was Andrew Ill, whose father was King Stephen V and his
mother was Tomasina Morosini, descendant of a Venetian patrician family. Andrew III, educated in
Venice, came to the Hungarian throne at the invitation of one of those influential people, lvan Koszegi,
we mentioned above. Andrew and his Polish wife had one daughter who became a Dominican nun,but
had no other children. When his wife died, he remarried, taking Agnes of Austria, daughter of Duke Albert I
of Austria for his second wife, but they had no children. Andrew developed some kind of an unspecified
mortal disease which killed him on January 14, 1301at Buda Castle. With his death, the male line of the
Arpad dynasty died out.
Immediately, there were several contenders for the throne. King Rudolph I of Germany believed that
Hungary should be a part of the Holy Roman Empire and tried to have his son, Duke Albert, accepted as
the legitimate ruler of Hungary. - The child Wenceslas of King Wenceslas II of Bohemia was engaged to
Andrew Ill's daughter Elizabeth, so this seemed to be a possible solution for the kingless Hungary to acquire
a king for the crown, although certainly a "stretch" for the connection. The third notable aspirant was Mary,
sister of the assassinated King Ladislaus IV, married to the king of Naples. She announced her claim to the
throne, first for herself, then for her son, Charles Martel of Anjou, and when Charles died, to her grandson
Charles Robert, who had the support of the new Archbishop, Gergely Bicskei.
This is where we pick up the story.
THE INTERREGNUM
We have touched on this subject on pages 17 through 20 under the title Oddities of Royal Succession,
from which the following excerpts are taken.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
55
In the first decade of the 14th century a somewhat chaotic situation emerged in Hungary. Following the end
of the Arpad dynasty in 1301 with the death of King Andrew Ill, there appeared to be at least two
contenders for the throne, - both of them without real authority or legitimacy to govern. As we pointed
out above, in 1301two "children" competed: one was Charles Robert, the 13-year-old grandson of Anjou
King Charles II and the 12-year-old grandson of Bohemian (Czech) king Wenceslaus II. The third aspirant
happened to be Mary, a daughter of King Stephen V of Hungary who was also the sister of King Ladislaus IV
of Hungary who ultimately transferred her claim to her grandson, the underage Charles Robert.
Neither had the full support of the country's electors, but since chronologically Wenceslaus came first, we will
pursue his story.
WENCESLAUS III/LADISLAUS V (V. Laszlo, 1305-1306)
He was of the House of Premyslid, as his father, Wenceslaus II was the king of Bohemia and Poland. Born in
Prague, Bohemia in 1289, in 1298, at the age of 9 Wenceslaus got engaged to Elizabeth, the only child of
King Andrew II of Hungary. When Andrew Ill died, king Wenceslaus II accepted the crown on behalf of his
underage son who assumed the Hungarian name of Laszlo (Wenceslaus Ill) and was crowned in 1301, still a
young child at age 12, in Szekesfehervar.
The country was split into principalities run by influential families. Wenceslaus was only accepted as
Hungary's king by the Csak and Gussing families, governing an area corresponding to today's Slovakia,
Burgenland and the territory around the capital, Buda. Soon, however, the Csak family threw its support to
Charles Robert, the other aspirant to the throne, frightening the young king of losing his kingdom. He
appealed to his father for help. Wenceslaus II entered Hungary with a large army and invaded Buda.
Reviewing the situation, he saw that his son's situation was untenable, he withdrew, taking his son and St.
Stephen's crown with him. (See the story on page 7.)
When the old king died, Wenceslas Ill renounced the Hungarian crown, hoping to become the next king of
Bohemia and Poland. In December of 1305 he passed the crown to Otto, Duke of Lower Bavaria. (See the
following story.) Wenceslaus Ill also broke off his "engagement" to Elizabeth of Hungary. (Elizabeth then
entered a convent.) Wenceslaus was murdered under mysterious circumstances in 1306 in Moravia.
OTTO III (V. Bela, 1305-1308)
Otto was a member of the Wittelsbach dynasty and bore the title of Duke of Lower Bavaria since 1290. His
connection to the Hungarian crown was that he was the son of Henry XIII, Duke of Bavaria and Elizabeth of
Hungary, granddaughter of King Bela IV. Otto was in opposition to the Habsburgs in Styria. In order to accept
the Hungarian crown from Wenceslaus Ill in Prague, he disguised himself as a merchant and reached Buda
in November, 1305 (see the related story on previous pages). He was then crowned in Szekesfehervar, but
not with St. Stephen's Holy Crown, naming himself Bela V after his grandfather.
He was not only not supported by some of the aristocracy, but vehemently and vocally opposed. The
opposition took a military turn when the third aspirant to the throne, Charles of Anjou, led his forces to occupy
Esztergom, and even Buda. Worse of all, when the Duke, now King Otto visited with Ladislaus Kan, the
Voivode of Transylvania, he was arrested and imprisoned by the Transylvanian leader who could not accept
him as a legitimate ruler without being crowned with St. Stephen's crown.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
56
After some six months in prison, the Voivode let Otto free, who then left the country and in 1308
abdicated the Hungarian throne. First married to Katharine of Habsburg in 1279, they produced twin
brothers. Both children died within the year of their birth. Otto remained a widower for 23 years, then
married for the second time and produced two more children. He died at age 51 in Landshut, where my
Uncle KorneI Oszlanyi was imprisoned following World War II as Hungary's highest decorated military
officer.
His abdication and exile left the throne open for the third aspirant, as the period, called interregnum, came to
a close.
CHARLES I (a.k.a Karoly Robert, 1308-1342)
As we discussed in the previous chapter on Hungarian history, a sad and turbulent period followed the
death of King Andrew Ill. This was the period of interregnum, where sometimes multiple kings pretended
they had the upper hand.
In the situation at hand, the nobles reached out to the Anjou Charles II, King of Naples (1285-1309), who was
married to Maria, daughter of the Hungarian King Stephen V from the Arpad dynasty. (Stephen was the
son of Bela IV.) Anjou Charles sired a boy also named Charles, who became Charles I of Hungary and took
the throne in 1310 finally as a legitimate contender, since he was the grandson of Stephen V. Charles I
established the Angevin dynasty in Hungary. His succession to the throne, though, occurred in a strange
sequence of events, which may be of interest to my readers and, therefore, is presented here. Some of it is
taken from Oxford Professor C. A. Macartney's book: Hungary, a short history. The professor points out
that although the Arpad family honored the principle of "senioratus", but most rulers passed over senior
relatives in favor of a son even though "primogenitur" (favoring the first-born son) was not officially in
vogue.
Oddities of royal succession were common, I am pretty certain, not only in Hungarian history, but in the
history of other nations. Specific to our past, I wrote extensively about this strange phenomenon starting
on page 17. I encourage you to re-read that segment for a better understanding of the entanglement
caused by ambition on a royal scale.
Not counting the first leaders of the pre-Christian period from High Prince Almos to Arpad, to Zoltan, to Fajsz,
Taksony and Geza, father of St. Stephen, Hungarians had the fortune (or misfortune) of having 24 kings in
the Arpad dynasty. Our story goes on to examine what Fate had in store for us, their successors.
AMBITION ON A ROYAL SCALE
Way back in Hungarian history when Andrew I took the throne in 1047, he tried to secure the succession
for his 7-year-old son, Salamon and he committed him in infancy in marriage to the daughter of Emperor
Henry Ill. (Salamon made it to the throne in 1063, thanks to his father-in-law's influence over Hungarian
politics.) Many of these efforts at succession culminated in violence, such as when King Kalman (Coloman)
had both his brother Almos and Almos's son Bela blinded in order to eliminate them as aspirants to the
throne. The sad part of the story is that Coloman, who ordered such a dastardly act, was the son of King
Ladislaus who would eventually attain sainthood under the name of St. Laszlo. The irony of the story is
that the blind Bela would eventually be crowned and ruled for 10 years, starting in 1131.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
57
The story of Charles I and his entanglement is equally fascinating.
The stakes were high, so the supporters of Charles didn't waste any time; inviting him to Hungary they took
him to Esztergom where the Archbishop Gregory Bicskei crowned him with a substitute crown, since the
original Holy Crown was in the possession of and guarded by his opponents. The majority of the
magnates, however, did not accept Charles' rule and proclaimed Wenceslaus their king, crowning him
with the true Holy Crown in Szekesfehervar by Archbishop John of Kalocsa in 1301. To further his
legitimacy, Wenceslaus was engaged to Elizabeth, daughter of King Andrew Ill, the last of the Arpad dynasty
and assumed the name Ladislaus V (Laszlo).
Charles Robert recruited military forces in Slavonia and laid an unsuccessful siege to Buda Castle in
September, 1302 but had to withdraw to Slavonia. The Bohemian King Wenceslaus II came to Hungary in
the summer of 1304 at the head of a large army to provide support and credibility to his son, but soon realized
that the son's position in Hungary was unstable to say the least. He retreated and Wenceslaus followed, taking
the Holy Crown with him.
When the Bohemian king died and his son, Wenceslaus, was elevated to the throne of that country in 1305,
he gave up his aspirations to the Hungarian throne, offering the crown to the Bavarian Prince Otto, who was
the 46-year-old grandson of King Bela IV. Otto was considered the enemy of the Austrian Habsburgs, so Otto
had to disguise himself as a merchant while transiting Austria to Prague where he took possession of the Holy
Crown. On his way to Hungary Otto nearly lost the crown until it was accidentally found in the swamp near
the Hungarian border (see my letter to the Editor of the Washington Post, above). Otto was then crowned in
Szekesfehervar in December, 1305 and assumed the name Bela V.
The following year Charles Robert mounted another assault on Esztergom and in 1307 occupied Buda
Castle as well while Otto was visiting Transylvania, where the ruling king was arrested and was imprisoned.
In October 1307 the magnates proclaimed Charles Robert king, but he had to wait for Otto to abdicate
and release the Holy Crown so that he could assume the Hungarian throne. Otto abdicated and escaped in
1308 but the Crown remained in the hands of the powerful aristocrats of Transylvania. Pope Clement V
had to intervene to have Charles proclaimed king. The Papal legate had a new crown made for Charles with
which he was crowned on June 15, 1309 by Archbishop Tamas of Esztergom. Finally, under the threat of the
Papal legate, Ladislaus Kan handed over the Holy crown and Charles was crowned for the third time with
the Holy crown on August 27, 1310 by the Archbishop of Esztergom, and was known as Karoly I, or
Robert Karoly.
THE ANGEVIN DYNASTY
Charles Robert (Charles I) (1310-1342) was a colorful and major character of the new dynasty. He
restored the royal power by reforming the practice of collecting customs fees by abolishing the private
customs houses, introducing newly minted gold coins (Florins) and enriching the king's treasury.
Hungarian gold mines produced 3,000 lbs, or one-third of the world's total annual gold production and
the king shared the taxes collected on the mines with the landowners. He also levied taxes on the
revenues of the church which caused a clash with the church hierarchy.
Charles formed a mutual defense union with Poland and with Bohemia, but antagonized the principalities
on Hungary's southern border by promoting Catholicism among the mostly Greek-Orthodox Serbs, Bulgars
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
58
and Wallachians (today's Romanians). Even after his coronation he had to fight some of the powerful
families who opposed him. In the summer of 1311, for example, the Csak family organized a siege to
Charles' capital, Buda, but was unable to unseat him. The following year Charles had to assert himself
against the rebels of the city of Kassa and in 1315 he re-occupied the famous Visegrad Castle from Matthew
Csak, while in 1316 he battled the forces of the Koszegi family and won other battles, including Komarom.
In a much later battle with Serbia, Charles was wounded by an arrow.
One real threat to Hungary, which Charles had not yet realized, was the plans of Ottoman Turkish sultans
Osman and Orhan to invade southeastern Europe.
Charles was married three times. After the death of his first wife, Maria of Bytom, in 1318 he married
Beatrix of Luxembourg, daughter of Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor as well as sister of the Queen of
France. Regretfully, Beatrix died in 1319 while giving birth to a stillborn child. The following year Charles
married Elizabeth of Poland with whom they had 5 children, - one of which became king of Hungary as
Louis I in 1342. A potential danger to his reputation was that Charles had a mistress named Elizabeth
Csak, daughter of George Csak, with whom they produced a boy who would eventually become Coloman,
bishop of Gyor. - Charles died in Visegrad in 1342, but was buried at Szekesfehervar.
LOUIS I (Nagy Lajos, 1342-1382)
Louis I, or Louis the Great (Nagy Lajos) became king of Hungary and Croatia in 1342 and earned the title
of "Great" for having reigned over the territories of Galicia, Moldavia, Wallachia, Dalmatia, Bosnia and
parts of Bulgaria and Serbia as well as Poland (from 1370 till his death), a greatness which lasted well into
the early part of the 20th century.
Louis' father, Charles I, was married three times. Louis was born the third of five sons of Charles I and wife
Elizabeth of Poland. (The first son, Charles, died in infancy, the second son, Ladislaus died at age five.)
Louis was born in 1326. When he was 16, he married the underage daughter of Charles IV, Holy Roman
Emperor, but the girl died while she was still a minor. Louis then married Elizabeth, daughter of Stephen
II of Bosnia and Elizabeth of Kuyavia. They had four daughters, the first dying in infancy, the second at
age 8, the third, Mary would become his successor on the Hungarian throne and the fourth, Hedwig,
followed him (Louis) on the throne of Poland.
Louis was well educated in the seven liberal arts and by age 16 he spoke Hungarian, Latin, German and
Italian. He was an excellent military leader as well who liked and practiced the military life and fought sideby-side with his soldiers.
Louis was a king of the Renaissance. Through contacts with his father's Italian connections, he embraced
the culture of Italy. It can be said that Charles I and Louis I brought prosperity to feudal Hungary. Louis
encouraged the production of gold mines, producing 1,400 kilos (3,000 lbs) annually which represented
one-third of the world's gold production as known then. The Angevin royal family owned one-third of all
land in Hungary. The population climbed to 3 million, and if we include Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia as
well, the number of people living under Louis's reign was 4 million.
One curious fact is that the most famous epic hero of Hungarian literature, Miklos Toldi, is depicted having
lived in that era, as told by the eminent novelist and poet Janos Arany.
As far as royal legislature is
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
59
concerned, the Law of Entail, which held up until 1848, regulated the inheritance of the land-owning class.
Louis also codified the military obligations of the nobility and recovered for the Crown land where the
original owners and their descendent had died out. The novelty was that he gave a nod to the female
descendants in that they would be entitled to one-fourth of the assessed value of the deceased noble,
but such value had to be paid to the Crown in cash. And in Poland he forbade the introduction of new
taxes by the king, except with the consent of the nobility.
Louis withdrew the rights of towns and counties to judge individual cases and all local governments answered
to the Crown. The Palatine and the royal High Court would deal with all legal issues. In military matters, Louis
required the magnates and barons to lead a "banderium" of armed noblemen and some peasants of the
royal estates in the light infantry. The tour of duty for these soldiers was 3 months within the country and 40
days on foreign campaigns. On longer campaigns in foreign countries, the king often used mercenary troops.
On occasion the king also financed the Pope's wars in exchange for legates of Rome to settle issues between
Hungary and other states and rulers, including Emperor Charles IV. The Popes, incidentally, recognized early
the increase of the Turkish/Ottoman threat and would eventually recruit foreign troops to help the Hungarians
fight the enemy.
Venice and Naples
During Louis' 40 year rule, there were only 3 peaceful years. Otherwise he was always engaged in wars,
especially with Italy. One of his early campaigns was against Venice which had attempted to bribe
generals of his army. In the clash of Louis' 100,000-men army and Venice in 1346, 7,000 men died, yet
Venice remained in Venetian hands. In 1347 Europe was appalled by the news of the assassination of
Louis' brother, Andrew, husband of Joan I of Naples. It seemed a realistic palace conspiracy which took
the young prince, demanding retaliation, so Louis declared war on Naples. He won the battle, but had to
withdraw when the feared disease, the black death, broke out. In a subsequent campaign the Pope put
up his objections and Louis had to give up his ambition of controlling Naples. The enmity between Naples
and Hungary lasted until the year before Louis's death, who was too ill to conduct any more campaigns.
Nevertheless, he sent his nephew Charles Durazzo, to extract revenge on Queen Joan I by seizing the
throne and suffocating her with pillows in retaliation for her role in Prince Andrew's assassination.
An interesting and personal story emerged from Louis' third campaign against Venice, in which he
obtained from Venice the relics of St. Paul the Hermit and took them to the Pauline monastery in Buda.
When I was in first grade elementary school, I was chosen to serve as an altar boy in the Rock Chapel on
Gellert hill, operated by Pauline fathers as the chapel of "Remete Szent Pal", or St. Paul the Hermit. I
never learned about King Louis' role inthe life/death of the Saint until the time I started happily preparing
for this historical review.
Poland
King Casimir Ill of Poland was Louis's uncle, who had appointed Louis to be his successor upon the king's
death. Louis waged successful campaigns on the side of the Poles in pagan Lithuania, and won victories
over the Mongol elite force called Golden Horde and conquered Galicia. Thus, the Hungarian sphere of
influence extended all the way to the Dniester river. In 1345, when the Polish capital Crakow was besieged
by the Bohemians, the Hungarian army got there in time to relieve the city of the military threat. Uncle Casimir
died in 1370 and the Poles elected Louis King of Poland. He appointed his mother, a Polish princess, to be
regent (governor), representing the king in Poland. The Poles resented the decisions of
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
69
Elizabeth and in 1375 killed 160 of her Hungarian guards in a surprise attack, forcing Elizabeth to flee
Poland. Louis took revenge of the rebels and re-established his superiority over the country.
The Balkans
Many of his foreign wars were motivated by drawing foreign countries in the Balkans into the fold of the
Roman Catholic church. In 1366 Louis had himself crowned king of Serbia and Bosnia. He also attached
Moldavia as a vassal state. Louis' campaigns in the Balkans may have been military victories, but he could
never win his subjects' hearts. They remained loyal to the Eastern Orthodox Church. In fact, Serbia,
Bulgaria, Bosnia, Wallachia and Moldavia as vassal states of Hungary regarded their powerful northern
neighbor as a menace to their national identity. They were not reliable in confronting the Turkish menace,
with which Louis found himself engaged as early as 1366 in Nicapoli. The battle concluded in favor of the
Hungarians, but Hungary would be facing future conflicts into the 16th century.
Besides the religious angle, I have often wondered why Hungarian rulers have nearly always bore arms
against their southern neighbors. I can condone and understand their interest in Venice as a commercial
center and a gateway to the Adriatic. But the generally mountainous region of the Balkans didn't provide
the right terrain for Hungarian warfare and provided Hungary little more than a moral victory for its king
and a tentative control over their territories.
Louis died in 1382.
The king was buried next to his idol King Saint Ladislaus in Nagyvarad.
MARY of ANJOU (1382-1395)
Since Louis had no male heir, he designated one of his daughters, Maria, to succeed him. Maria was only
11at the time, betrothed since age 7 to Sigismund of Luxemburg, son of Emperor Charles IV. The Poles did
not want to accept her in personal union with Hungary, nor did they like her fiance Sigismund as
regent. They chose instead Maria's sister, Hedwig, as their queen. Without precedent, both Maria and
Hedwig bore the title of King, not Queen, signifying the fact that they were not a queen consort, but rulers in
their own right. Catherine, the older sister to Maria and Hedwig, had been betrothed to Louis of France
and was expected to succeed her husband to the throne of France, as well as her father, Louis I to the
throne of Hungary. That would have been an exceptional and fascinating situation, indeed. Alas,
Catherine died at age seven.
Although Maria succeeded her father, she was assigned her mother, Elizabeth of Bosnia, who would be
regent. She was crowned in Szekesfehervar, but the Poles demanded that she live in Poland. Her mother
objected to that and made the proposal, which was ultimately accepted, that Mary would remain the
queen of Hungary, while the Poles would accept Hedwig as their queen/king.
There remained one major problem, that is that the majority of the nobility in Hungary was not agreeable to
a female monarch. Her closest agnate (a relative whose kinship is traceable exclusively through males) was
King Charles Ill of Naples who would be acceptable to the Hungarian nobles. An appearance in Hungary
of the presumed contender, Charles III, was expected soon. The Queen mother, Elizabeth, and the Palatine
formulated a plan to keep Charles out of Hungary by forming an alliance with Charles' enemies who were
from the House of Valois. By 1384, Mary was engaged to Louis of France, the same Louis who had been
betrothed to Mary's late sister, Catherine. Convening a diet to see if this proposal would work, they ran
into great opposition as many noblemen continued to support Sigismund. Hungary
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
61
appeared to be on the verge of a civil war. Charles Ill, however, could not move from Naples because he
felt it being threatened by Louis I, Duke of Anjou.
This changed dramatically, when the above-mentioned Louis I died in 1384. Charles could now claim the
throne of Hungary. His supporters in Hungary, including the Bishop of Zagreb, took advantage of the situation
and secretly invited him to come and assume the throne. When Charles landed in Dalmatia in September of
1385, Mary found herself and her country at war both with her former fiance, Sigismund's brother,
Wenceslaus who was by now king of Bohemia, as well as with the king of Bosnia.
A quick change of allegiance was decided. Mary broke up her engagement to Louis of France and arranged to
marry Sigismund by October. Alas, it was too late already. Sigismund took flight to his brother's court in
Prague and Mary abdicated from the throne. Charles Ill was crowned on December 3lst, 1385 with Mary
and Queen Elizabeth forced to attend the coronation. I can imagine the sour faces at that ceremony!
CHARLES II (Kis Karoly, 1385-1386)
We cannot get too excited over the rule of this king, as it only lasted 56 days. The circumstances would
make up the best tragi-comedy ever written. All we need now is to have a musician to compose music for this
and present it in operatic format.
At the end of his coronation ceremony, the wily old Queen Elizabeth invited the new king to visit with the
former Queen/King Maria. There, at one of Maria's palaces, Charles II was fatally stabbed on February 7,
1386. He was transported to Visegrad, to the royal castle in the Danube bend, where he expired on
February 24th.
Maria was restored to the throne while Elizabeth retained her position as spokeswoman for the King. In
April Sigismund re-appeared on the scene in the company of half-brother Wenceslaus of Bohemia and the
two queens had to recognize that Sigismund would be co-ruler of Hungary and signed a treaty to that
effect in the city of Gyor. In opposition, the murdered Charles' supporters claimed the right of succession
for Charles' underage son, Ladislaus.
Soon war broke out, initiated by Slavonia. The queen and her mother decided to personally appear to
defuse the issue. On July 25, 1386, their entire retinue was ambushed on the way to Slavonia and was
attacked by John Horvat's party. Maria and her mother were captured and all their entourage killed. The
queen and her mother were escorted to the castle of the bishop of Zagreb. The country was left without
leadership.
The nobles, realizing the dire situation, agreed to convoke a diet at Szekesfehervar. They confirmed Maria's
royal rights and privileges and offered a general pardon to her captors. The queens were then moved to
Novigrad (Ujvidek, or today's Belgrade). Sigismund rounded up an army and in January, 1387 attempted to
liberate the queens by marching into Slavonia, but remained unsuccessful. The queens' captors strangled
Queen Elizabeth in sight of her daughter on the orders of their jailer, John Palisna.
For a quick solution to the kingdom's lack of leadership, Sigismund was crowned on March 31, 1387.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
62
SIGISMUND of Luxemburg (Zsigmond, 1387-1437)
In early June, 1378 Sigismund finally succeeded in liberating Maria with the help of the Venetian fleet. Maria
retained some privileges, but overall she exercised joint authority with King Sigismund, including using her
own seal until 1393, while he used his. Among others, when John Horvat was captured in later years it was
the Queen who ordered him to be tortured to death.
Maria was well along her pregnancy when she ventured out alone to hunt in the forests of Buda. On May 17,
1395 her horse tripped and she was thrown from the horse, with the animal falling on top of her. This traumatic
incident prompted her labor and she gave birth prematurely to a son, who died there on the spot. The queen
could not summon help and died of her injuries as well. They were found together in the forest. Despite her
sister, Hedwig of Poland claiming the crown, Sigismund defended it and remained the sole ruler of Hungary.
He was a mere 19 years of age!
THE 13 t h and 14th CENTURIES
It would be a mistake to delineate events of the 13th century as events totally isolated from the previous
century. People living in those times probably didn't even know that they were living in what we now
know as "the Middle Ages" which separated ancient times from modern times, if we may call those times
truly "modern." After all, we, living in the 21st century, think of modern times starting with Henry Ford's
Model A's, or better still, with the outbreak of World War I, but times seem to be passing faster, - at least
for us, - than anytime previously. Based on the configuration of historians, the Middle Ages began with
the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, encompassing a seemingly interminable period until the end
of the so-called Hundred Year War in 1453. The Hungarians, who constitute our main interest for this
work, obviously didn't suspect that the so-called Middle Ages are about to come to an end.
But history certainly would not come to an end for the Hungarians, even though Hungarian history went
through some tough times in the period under consideration.
For the purposes of this exercise you should kindly consider that we cannot deal in great detail with
historical events in the British Isles, nor in what I would call the "classical Europe" of Spain, France,
Germany and Italy, because the Hungarians had already enough on their plate. We will concentrate on
what was essential to Hungary and Central Europe.
The Mongol menace
One of the ongoing, or continuing events was the development of the Mongol menace which would
ultimately reach Hungary and decimate its tender population in 1241. The Mongols were a group of
nomadic tribes in Central Asia. Near the turn of the 12th to 13th centuries they had a leader called Temujin,
later known as Genghis Khan, who united the Mongolian tribes and pursued a plan to conquer China, Siberia
and Persia. His grandson, Kublai Khan had even greater ambitions. Employing his famed and feared troops
called the Golden Horde, he crossed the lower Volga river and continuing through the Carpathians devastated
the Hungarian nation in 1241 reaching Constantinople as well. St. Stephen's Crown was saved by the
sudden withdrawal of the Tartars to Asia who stayed away from Hungary until a brief campaign in 1285 into
the eastern parts of the country, followed by a permanent withdrawal.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
63
The Tatars were a tribe of the Mongols, being very aggressive and quick on horseback. The combatants
carried 2 or 3 bows (ij), 3 quivers (tegezd) full of arrows (nyil), also a hatchet (szekerce) and ropes. They
were familiar with Chinese warfare, using machines capable of casting rocks and smoke-making chemicals
over castle walls. Horses were held in great respect, their worth sometimes higher than human lives.
The main battle in Hungary took place on the plains of Mohi between the Danube and Tisza rivers, on April
11, 1241. The two camps had about 25,000 men each on either side of the Sajo river. The bridge head was
defended by troops provided by King Bela IV's brother Prince Kalman and Archbishop Ugrin of Kalocsa.
Having minor exchanges during the day, the Hungarians left a small guard to defend the bridge while the
major force retired for the night. The Tartars took advantage of the night and crossing the bridge invaded
the Hungarian camp. Fierce fighting ensued lasting all night. King Bela IV was protected by his knights and
managed to escape. The rest of the Hungarian force was killed or dispersed.
Elsewhere, the Tartars' scorched-earth strategy was to burn within and without the fortifications, collect and
carry away the loot, killing men, women and children, having no pity on anyone. People hiding in buildings,
especially churches, were raped and robbed of their personal belongings, then killed while fires were set
under the building.
When the Tatars withdrew to settle some internal matter within the Mongolian nation, King Bela IV
prevailed upon the nobility and the towns to build fortifications, walls and castles to stave off any possible
future attack. The forts and ramparts which grew up throughout the country served the Hungarians well
during the Turkish wars that followed in the 16th century. The second attack of the Mongol/Tatar Golden
Horde under Kublai Khan would wait until 1285 when the Tatars broke into the country from Moldavia in
the East and progressed to the Tisza river before withdrawing for good. This second incursion may have
been in retaliation for a foreign policy miscalculation by King Ladislaus IV of Hungary.
The Crusades
At the beginning of a review of the 13th and 14th centuries we mentioned that events do not separate
strictly as we step from one century into another. Many events have their roots and beginnings in the
previous time period. Such is an event we want to take a more extensive look at are the Crusades. They
had been around since the end of the 11th century and will make their effects felt long after the 13th
century.
The Crusades were military campaigns sanctioned, in fact instigated by the Roman Catholic Church to make
access available for Christians to the Holy Land and acted as a pilgrimage for those who participated in them.
Each crusader took a vow to be fulfilled upon reaching Jerusalem, without regard as to how holy, how
"unselfish or selfish", how dedicated or cruel and pointless the crusade may turn out to be, - or whether they
were taking part in an aggressive attack or a defensive action against emerging Islam. In return for
participation, the Crusaders received plenary indulgence for their sins.
The first crusade was proclaimed by Pope Urban II in 1095. Not all subsequent campaigns, also called
"crusades" were directed to the Near East as political and personal ambition led many of them in
directions we would never think of today, including the Baltics, Prussia and Livonia. They may even had
mercantile objectives to open up trade routes. All the crusades were led by high political and religious
figures, including St. Bernard of Clairvaux and King Andrew II of Hungary.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
64
(
About 100,000 persons from France and Italy
traveled by land to Constantinople and then
through Anatolia. The age-old weakness in any
company, association or gathering we have
noted in human experience showed up even
on this first crusading attempt. Namely, the King
of France and Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor
were in conflict with the Pope, so they stayed
away. Also, when the first French crusaders
crossed into Germany in 1096, thousands of
Jews were massacred in an age-old hatred of
those whom, to this day, are thought to be
responsible for the crucifixion and death of Jesus,
despite the efforts of bishops to protect them.
SI ILY
1t
The Byzantine Empire and the Sultanate of Rfun before
the First Crusade
The first battle broke out in Antioch, ending with the massacre of Muslims and the destruction of the city.
The same fate befell Jerusalem when those that could still walk entered the holy city in late 1099. Both
Muslims and Jews, who attempted to save the city, perished.
Looking at this disaster of human suffering from the viewpoint of a crusader, the French Raymond
d'Aguilers wrote: "...At the Temple of Solomon men rode in blood up to their knees. It was a just and
splendid judgement of God that this place should be filled with the blood of unbelievers since it had
suffered so long from their blasphemies."
The second crusade was recruited by Bernard of Clairvaux in 1147. Louis VI and Conrad Ill commanding
the French and German armies, respectively, marched against Jerusalem that year but failed to
accomplish anything. Even a pre-emptive strike against Damascus failed. Back in Europe, however, part
of the second crusade retook Lisbon, Portugal from the Muslims in 1147. The future St. Bernard was
appalled at the amount of misdirected violence and slaughter.
The third crusade was prompted by the Muslims, when they, unified by Saladin, retook Jerusalem from
the resident Christians in 1187. Europe was shocked. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, King
Philip II of France and King Richard of England attempted to re-write history. Frederick died en route to
the Holy Land; Philip returned to France while Richard captured Cyprus from the Byzantines as late as
1191. The crusaders were within sight of Jerusalem, but their supply lines failed them and had to abandon
the campaign.
The fourth crusade never reached the Holy Land. Pope Innocent initiated the recruitment for the crusade
of 1202. The whole concept of "liberating the Holy Land" got off on the wrong foot when it came to light
that no one had the funds for conducting the war. Instead, they borrowed from Venice, promising to
share with them all that could be looted. Appalled at this concept, Pope Innocent excommunicated the
crusaders. A secondary aim of the campaign was freeing and restoring Alexios, the nephew of the
German king Philip to the throne of Byzantium. However, while the fleet was sailing down the Dardanelles,
Alexios was strangled by his enemies. They had to repeat the assault in 1204, when many residents were
simply butchered. As a postscript, it was in 2001 when Pope John Paul II apologized to the Archbishop of
Athens for the tragic events of the 4th crusade.
(
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
65
Pope Honorius Ill called a "crusade" against heretics in Bosnia, to which only the Hungarian forces
responded in 1234 and again in 1241, but had to abandon the effort because of the Mongol invasion of
Hungary in 1241.
The fifth crusade was to start in 1217 at the urging of the 4th Lateran Council in 1215. Hungary
spearheaded this campaign under the leadership of King Andrew II, followed by other forces under Duke
Leopold VI. Although their forces arrived, but their supplies did not get there in time, so after some
skirmishes King Andrew II returned home. The other crusaders ventured into Egypt capturing Damietta.
They were blocked from further advance in Egypt and returned home.
The popes weren't kidding when they urged Europeans to stage these crusades. Emperor Frederick II had
vowed to stage a crusade but failed to deliver on his promise, so Pope Gregory IX excommunicated him in
1228. Nevertheless, Frederick sailed from Brindisi in the Adriatic and stopped over at Cyprus, where he signed
a peace pact with AI-Kamil, the ruler of Egypt, which gave Christian pilgrims access and rule over most of
Jerusalem without a shot being fired.
The seventh crusade didn't turn out so well. Al-Kamil's son stormed Jerusalem in 1244 and took it. The
crusader army which sailed in 1248 under King Louis IX's command, was completely eliminated in a battle in
Gaza. The king was captured and had to be ransomed free. To reflect the sentiments of one of the
Templar knights, here is a quote from the man's writings:
"Rage and sorrow are seated in my heart. It seems that God wishes to support the Turks to our loss....
The East will never be able to rise up again. Anyone who wishes to fight the Turks is mad, for Jesus Christ
does not fight them anymore. God, who was awake sleeps now, and Mohammad waxes powerful."
There were two more attempts which history numbers 8 and 9, but they accomplished practically nothing.
King Louis IX attacked the Arabs in Tunis in 1270. Picking the hottest season, disease and fatigue
devastated his army. King Louis IX, too, died. Baibars of the Mamluks drove the Franks in the Middle East
to coastal outposts and captured, enslaved or killed every Christian in Antioch. The remainder of the
army under Edward I of England returned home in 1274.
Since high school texts usually deal very superficially with this subject, I think an overview of the Crusades
was in order. Besides, five of the crusades took place in the 13th century and one, #5, was led by Hungarian
king Andrew II.
Elsewhere in the world it was the future saint Francis of Assisi who founded the Franciscan order in 1209,
whereas the Inquisition commenced in 1229 when the Pope charged the Dominican order with identifying
and punishing sources of heresy within the Church. The justice system of the Roman Catholic Church
quickly got out of hand when those accused of heresy would be coerced to confess in response to
instruments of torture.
Partly in response to the great debates within and without the Church, the future saint, Thomas Aquinas
(1225-1274) wrote his thesis, Summa theologica in 1273.
On the next page we'll examine some rare samples of Hungarian literature from that era.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
66
- ----- - ---
(
There are two relics from Hungarian literature in this era which have survived.
One is a fragment of a funeral oration ("Halotti beszed") from around 1192-1195,
copied into the Latin codex known as the Pray Codex, whose page 136 is featured
on this page. The name of the codex comes from its discoverer, the Jesuit monk,
George Pray who turned over the text to others for publication in 1770.
Not only does the decorative writing make this nearly illegible, but the
text itself is nearly incomprehensible compared to the modern Hungarian
language. Below are three versions of the beginnings of the oration: on the left is
the original text as seen, the center piece is how it might have sounded originally,
and the one on the right is the text in its modern version. Every high school student
in my time had to know at least the first two lines. My own translation follows
below.
-
-- ---- - --- --Eredeti szoveg
Ertehnezes
Egykori olvasat
Latiatuc feleym zumtuchel mic vogmuc. yfa pur ef
Latjatuk feleim s:ziimtiikhel, mik vogymuk: isa, por es
chomuv uogmuc. Meny1 Iniloll:ben terumteve eleve
homou vogymuk. Menyi milosztbcn teriimteve elevc
m1v ifemucut adamut. _ ef odutta vola neki paradifumut miii isemiikot Adamot, es odutta vola neki
hazoa. Ef mend parad,fumben uolov gimilcictul
paradicsumot hazoa. Es mend paradicsumben valou
Latjatok, feleim, szemetekkel, mik vagyunlc biza por es
hamu vagyunk. Mennyi malasztban (kegyelemben) teremte
eleve [Ur] mi osiinket, Adamot, es adta vala neki
Paradicsomot hazava. Es mind[en] Paradicsomban valo
You see, my brethren, with your own eyes what we are: mud, dust and ashes we are. In plenty of grace
the Lord had created our ancestor, Adam and gave him Paradise as his house (home).
The other priceless relic of early Hungarian literature is the so-called
Lamentations of Mary ("O magyar Maria siralom"), the oldest extant
Hungarian poem, copied around 1300 into a Latin codex similarly to the
above funeral oration. It is likely a translation of a Latin text in the 13th
\
century and copied into the so-called Leuven Codex of a Catholic
University's library. The author of the poem is a monk called Godfrid who
lived in 12th century Paris.
The poem features rhyme, rhythm and rich alliterations as well. Mary, the
Mother of the crucified Jesus addresses her son in the first person. She
relates her own feelings of desperation, then asks for death to relieve both
of them soon, accusing his torturers and offering herself in place of her son.
Fragments follow below with the appropriate translation:
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
A leuveni kodex az omagyar Mariasiralommal.
Original Text
Volek syrolm
Thudothlon
Syrolmol sepedyk.
Buol ozuk epedek.
Pronunciation (by
Dezso Pais)
Volek sirolm tudotlon.
Sirolmol sepedik,
Buol oszuk, epedek,
Modern Hungarian (by
Ferenc Molnar)
Nem ismertem a
Siralmat,
Most siralom sebez,
Fajdalom gyotor,
epeszt.
English
I did not know the
lament yet,
Now lament gashes,
Ache lacerates,
Languishes.
Walasth vylagumtul
Sydou fyodumtul
Ezes urumemtuul
Valaszt vilagumtuul
Zsidou fiodumtuul
Ezes urumemtuul.
Elvalasztanak
Vilagossagomtol
Zsido fiamtol
Edes oromemtol.
Separate me from my
Light,
From my Jewish son,
My sweet delight.
O en eses urodum
Eggen yg fyodum
Syrou aniath
thekunched
Buabeleul kyniuhhad
O en ezes urodum
Egggyen-igy fiodum,
Sirou anyat tekuncsed,
Buabeleul kinyuhhad!
En edes Uram
Egyetlenegy fiam,
Siro anyat tekintsed,
Fajdalmabol kivonjad!
O my sweet Lord,
My only one son,
Look at the crying,
Mother,
Withdraw her from her
pain!
Scemem kunuel arad
En iunhum buol farad
The werud hullothya
En iunhum olelothya
Szemem kunyuel arad
Junhum buol farad.
Te verud hullottya
En junhum olelottya.
Szemembol konny arad
Szivem kintol farad,
Te vered hullasa,
Szivem alelasa
From my eyes tears are
flooding,
My heart tires from
torment,
Your blood’s falling,
My heart’s languishing.
Vylag uilaga
Viragnac uiraga
Keseruan kynzathul
Uos scegegkel
werethul.
Vilag vilaga,
Viragnak viraga
Keseruen kinzatul
Vos szegekkel veretul
Vilag vilaga,
Viragnak viraga,
Keservesen kinoznak,
Vasszegekkel atvernek!
World’s light,
Flower’s flower,
They torment you
Bitterly,
They pierce you with
iron nails!
Vh nequem en fyon
Ezes mezuul
Scegenul scepsegud
Wirud hioll wyzeul.
Uh nekem, en fiom,
Ezes mezuul
Szegyenul szepsegud
Virud hioll vizeul.
Jaj nekem, en fiam
Edes, mint a mez,
Megrutul szepseged
Vizkent hull vered!
Woe to me, my son,
Sweet as honey,
Your beauty turns to
ugliness,
Your blood falls like
water!
Syrolmom fuhazatum
Therthetyk kyul
En iumhumnok bel bua
Qui sumha nym kyul
Kyul
Sirolmom, fuhaszatum
Tertetik kiul
En junhumnok bel bua
Ki sumha nim hiul.
Siralmam,
Fohaszkodasom
Lattatik kivul.
Szivem belso fajdalma
Soha nem enyhul.
My lament, my prayer,
Can be seen from
outside,
My heart’s inner ache
Never abates.
Wegh halal engumet
Eggedum illen
Maraggun urodom
Kyth wylag felleyn
Vegy halal engumet
Eggyedun illyen
Maraggyun urodom
Kit vilag fellyen!
Vegy halal engemet,
Egyetlenem eljen,
Maradjon meg Uram,
Kit a gilag feljen!
Take me, death,
Let my only one to live,
Keep him, my Lord,
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
Whom the world
should fear!
O for the just Simeon’s
Certain word reached
me,
I can feel this dagger of
pain,
What long ago he
foretold.
O ygoz symeonnok
Bezzeg scouuno ere
En erzem ez buthuruth
Kyt niha egyre.
O, igoz Simeonnok
Bezzeg szovo ere:
En erzem ez buturut,
Kit niha egire.
O, az igaz Simeonnak
Biztos szava elert,
Erzem e fajdalom-tort
Amit egykor jovendolt.
Tuled ualmun
De num ualallal
Hul yg kynzassal
Fyom halallal.
Tuuled valnum;
De num valallal,
Hul igy kinzassal,
Fiom, halallal!
Ne valjak el toled,
Eletben maradva,
Mikor igy kinoznak
Fiam, halalra!
May I not be separated
From you,
Staying alive,
When they are
Tormenting you,
My son, to death!
Sydou myth thez
Turuentelen
Fyom merth hol
Byuntelen
Fugwa huztuzwa
Wklelue kethwe ulud.
Zsidou, mit tessz
Turventelen,
Fiom mert hol
biuntelen.
Fugva, husztozva,
Uklelve, ketve ulud!
Zsido, mit tesz,
Torvenytelen!
Fiam meghal, de
buntelen!
Megfogva, rangatva,
Oklozve, megkotve
Olod meg!
Jew, what you do is
lawless!
My son died, but he is
guiltless!
Clenched, hitched him,
Plummered, bound
him, you killed him!
Keguggethuk fyomnok
Ne leg kegulm
mogomnok
Owog halal kynaal
anyath ezes fyaal
egembelu ullyetuk
Kegyuggyetuk fiumnak,
Ne legy kegyulm
mogomnok!
Ovogy halal kinaal
anyat ezes fiaal
egyembelu ullyetuk!
Kegyelmezzetek meg
fiamnak, Ne legyen
kegyelem magamnak,
Avagy halal kinjaval
Anyat edes fiaval
Egyutt oljetek meg!
Have mercy on my son,
no mercy for me, or
with the torment of
death the mother with
her own son,
Kill them together!
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
67
It is interesting to note that the Jews will always bear some responsibility for the killing of Jesus of
Nazareth. A recent Pope may have apologized to the nation of Israel for persecution of the Jews
throughout Europe and in the Middle East, and yet, the original theme always recurs in which the chant of
the people reverberates: "Crucify him! Crucify him!" Even in the ancient poem, Lamentation of Mary, the
writer puts words in the Virgin Mary's mouth which would be out of place in 21st century America.
Lamentably, in 1278 two-hundred-seventy-ei ght Jews were hanged in London
for clipping coins while Christians were merely fined for the same crime. And in
1306 King Philip IV expelled all Jews from France. Will there ever be tolerance in
this world?
Near the border of Austria/Hungary there is an ancient cathedral, finished around
1256, on the outskirts of the little village called Jak (pronounced Yaack). When, in
1992 I had the good fortune of visiting that ancient church, I was amazed at the
monumental perspectives and sheer size of the building and the skill of its builders.
This is no ordinary church which survived so many hundreds of years. It is a
symbolic representation of the Hungarian spirit.
By the year 1277 there were 30 male and 2 female cloisters in Hungary for the
Dominicans in Hungary, supplemented by 43 monasteries for Franciscans in order
to counter the rising heresies in Western Europe.
The world became much richer in 1265 when Dante Alighieri saw daylight for the first time. Born in
Florence, Dante was a major Italian poet of the Middle Ages. His Divine Comedy is a masterpiece of world
literature, published in 1307. At age twelve Dante was promised in marriage to Gemma, a daughter of
the politically powerful Donati family. But Dante was in love with Beatrice Portinari, whom he first met
when he was only 9. Nevertheless, Dante married Gemma, and she bore several children for him.Dante was involved in politics, loyal to the Guelphs who supported the Papacy in opposition to the
Ghibellines backed by the Holy Roman Emperor. Dante accompanied a delegation of Florentines to Rome to
ascertain the intentions of Pope Boniface, but was tangled up in an imbroglio between the two political
factions. Dante got arrested and sentenced to two years of exile. Later pardoned but refusing to pay a
heavy fine, he cut off his return to Florence. If he had returned without paying the fine, he would have
been burned at the stake. Those were harsh times, indeed. In 1321 he died of malaria and was buried in
Ravenna.
Marco Polo was another famous personality of the 13th century. Born in 1254, he was a member of a
Venetian merchant family. During his lifetime he would write accounts of his varied travels which opened
up European eyes and wallets to Central Asia and China. Upon returning to Venice from one of their longdistance trips in 1269, Marco's father Niccolo and his uncle Maffeo took the young lad with them on an
epic voyage, during which Marco Polo kept written records of his experiences which would in time inspire
Christopher Columbus and others to embark on exploratory voyages and redesign the map of the world.
As Marco's mother died young, he was raised and educated by his aunt and uncle. He learned to speak
four languages. Marco, his father and uncle returned to Venice after traveling 15,000 miles in 1295, finding
Venice at war with the Republic of Genoa. Marco joined the battle by arming a galley and sailing to the
Eastern Mediterranean where he was captured by Genoese and imprisoned until liberated in
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
68
August, 1299. While in prison, he dictated the memoirs of his travels which became known as The travels
of Marco Polo. Back home in Venice, he became a wealthy merchant and financed other expeditions,
while never leaving home again. He died at home in January, 1324. His book contains fascinating stories
about his travels, including a long stay with Kublai Khan at the present city of Beijing. Because of the
unavailability of a printing press until the early 15th century, 150 copies in various languages exist of the
early manuscript and they differ slightly.
At this time no one had yet noticed that the Aztecs found a home in the plains of Mexico in 1267. We
should not be surprised at this. The American continents were truly a different world and there was either
no money or no interest, or both, to follow the movement of Indian tribes and nations. Their time will
come later, even if many of those people will have perished by the time Europe turned an interested face
upon them.
Social changes in the 13th & 14th centuries
After living and working in the same place for 200 years, there emerged a new phenomenon among the
younger generation. Migration, however mild, is taking place. People are looking for better opportunities,
better working and living conditions. Peasants with skills sell themselves to landlords who provide them
with arable land to cultivate with the ownership remaining with the landed owner, who is most likely
gentry.
They were obliged to pay their allowance to the lesser nobility, plus taxes to the king and tithing to the
Church. The average property leased to the landless peasant was about 20 "hold", or the equivalent of
28 acres which could be inherited, which meant that after a couple of generations it would get fragmented
and would shrink to be only a fraction of the original. Those who acquired or purchased property paid no
taxes but were obligated to serve in the military if and when so required. This is how the Hungarian lesser
nobility developed, forming a new class of societal order, or "rend" in Hungarian.
With Charles Robert coming into power in 1310, the royal properties grew in size as the king acquired the
former properties of the nobility, granting property rights only to those who served him and shared in
governing the country. Such were the "royal counselors" who advised the king.
Whereas the county was still the seat of local justice, the cities developed into the economic and
commercial centers of the country. Simultaneously, great differences developed between the urban and
provincial populations reflecting the nature of activity in those centers. Charles Robert and his
successor(s) recognized the value of fine metal which it represented to the West and pressed for
developing mines which produced nearly one-third of the world's gold production. Likewise, the
production of salt, an essential element of diet, was mainly concentrated in Transylvania's Szekely mines,
which required special skills as it was cut and sliced, requiring skilled labor often imported from abroad.
In contrast with the mining of gold, which was partially in private hands, salt production remained a royal
monopoly.
The Habsburgs
Bearing in mind that the Habsburgs would have a major impact on Hungarian history in later years, it is
interesting to consider the very beginnings of the Habsburgs' rise to power.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
69
In 1273 The German princes elected Count Rudolf Habsburg of Switzerland as their king. Ottokar, king of
Bohemia was also vying for the title and considered himself a contender. A battle to settle the primacy of
one or the other was inevitable. It took place on August 26, 1278. The Hungarian king Laszlo IV entered the
fray on the side of Rudolf with Hungarian and Cuman fighters. In the battle Ottokar lost his life. In time,
Rudolf would create Austria and the Steyr principalities, passing them down to his son. This is how a new
Central European power came into existence as the Habsburg dynasty.
Highlights of the 14th century
The Papacy, which until the end of the 13th century exercised extraordinary powers both spiritually and
militarily, came head to head with the worldly powers in France and Germany. Pope Boniface VII, elected in
1294, ran a corrupt papal administration compromising the Church's spiritual integrity. He was
eventually forced to resign. Even Dante portrayed this pope in his Divine Comedy. His successor, Benedict
XI died almost immediately after his election, likely from poisoning. The Church was on the verge of
excommunicating France and its leaders when a Frenchman was elected to the throne by the name of
Clement V. This Pope had enough of Roman supremacy and removed the papal court from Rome to
Avignon in France. Seven popes reigned from Avignon until 1377 when Gregory XI returned the seat of
power to Rome. This period is called the "Babylonian captivity", similarly to early history when the Jews
were captives in Babylon.
Somewhat associated with the above story, the so-called Great Schism did much damage to the reputation
of the Catholic Church. Returning to run-down and chaotic Rome did not suit some of the Popes and
Cardinals who were elected subsequently to the Babylonian captivity. They chose to return to Avignon,
led by the cruel and autocratic Pope Urban V. Some of the cardinals gathered in Fondi between Rome
and Naples and elected a rival pope called Clement VII, creating a division within the Church in the period
now called The Great Schism. In 1409 the Council of Pisa deposed both Popes and elected Alexander V,
however the anti-Popes refused to resign, thus creating a triple schism. After going through yet another
two popes, the Council of Constance in 1417 elected Martin V, ending the schism.
The Popes, as we have seen, meddled in affairs temporal and spiritual and often did not serve the benefit
of the faithful. Such an outrage occurred when, after the first polyphonic "Mass of Tournai" was
performed on the organ equipped with pedals, the Pope forbade the use of counterpoint in 1322, doing
great disservice to the development of music.
The beginning of the so-called 100-year-war was 1337. We shall devote a brief review of that affair
because it dominated European history for nearly a century.
Historians point to 1325 as the traditional year when the Aztecs founded Tenochtitlan, today's Mexico
City.
The English poet Geoffrey Chaucer was born in 1340 in London, who would create, among 500 other
works, the Canterbury Tales in 1387. He came from a family of well-to-do vintners. Well-known in royal
circles, he accompanied Edward Ill on his way to occupy France in the 100-year-war. Captured during the
siege of Rheims, the king paid 16 pounds for his release. Chaucer is credited with developing the widespread use of Middle English at a time when the dominant literary languages were French and Latin.
It is my pleasure to present on these pages a verse of the Canterbury Tales: Prologue.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
The Canterbury Tales ·Prologue
Here bygynneth the Book
of the tales of Caunterbury
l: Whan that aprill with his shoures soote
2: The droghte of march hath perced to the roote,
3: And bathed every veyne in swich licour
4: Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
5: Whan zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
6: Inspired hath in every holt and heeth
7: Tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
8: Hath in the ram his halve cours yronne,
9: And smale foweles maken melodye,
10: That slepen al the nyght with open ye
11: (so priketh hem nature in hir corages);
12: Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,
I 3: And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,
14: To feme ha!wes, kowthe in sondry Iondes;
15: And specially from every shires ende
16: Of enge!ond to caunterbury they wende,
17: The hooly blisfui martir for to seke,
70
Here begins the Book
of the Tales of Canterbury
When April v.ith his showers sweet v.ith fruit
The drought of March has pierced unto the root
And bathed each vein with liquor that has power
To generate therein and sire the flower;
When Zephyr also has, with his sweet breath,
Quickened again, in every holt and heath,
The tender shoots and buds, and the young sun
Into the Ram one half his course has run,
And many little birds make melody
That sleep through all the night with open eye
· (So Nature pricks them on to ramp and rage)Then do folk long to go on pilgrimage,
And palmers to go seeking out strange strands,
To distant shrines well known in sundry lands.
And specially from every shire's end
Of England they to Canterbury wend,
The holy blessed martyr there to seek
Chaucer died in 1400 and is buried in the poets' corner at Westminster Abbey.
When I was writing my 430+-page work on composers and compositions entitled: The Classical Alphabet, I
failed to devote sufficient space and time to the Frenchman Guillaume de Machaut (1300-1377), called in
his time the greatest musician. Even though it has little to do with Hungarian kings, I am captivated by this
character who personifies in some ways the spirit of the 14th century. Machaut was not only a composer
but a prolific poet as well, whose poetry inspired other poets : , ...,such as Geoffrey Chaucer. The Middle
Ages had but a mere 150 years to go before the Renaissance would engulf them. Ahead of its time, Machaut
introduced the "ars nova", the new art developing the musical forms rondeau, motet and ballade, - very
much a mainstay of the "newborn" era to follow. Machaut is the composer of the Messe de Nostre Dame
(Mass of Our Lady), the earliest known complete musical setting of the Ordinary of the Catholic Mass.
Machaut was born near Reims in the Ardenne region of France. Somehow he managed to wiggle his way
into the service of John I, king of Bohemia, as his secretary, accompanying him on military expeditions. The
king died of the bubonic plague ("Black Death") which devastated much of Europe's population, but Machaut
survived and wrote 400 poems, including his masterpiece "La voir dit." Many of his poems reflect courtly love
and give us an insight into 14th century chivalry. His musical output, both secular and sacred, tended toward
the polyphonic, including the above-mentioned Messe, a forerunner of the 15th century composer Josquin
des Prez, some of whose church music I had the opportunity to conduct.
Please allow me to reproduce his 18th "rondeau" entitled Puisqu'en Oub/i which, in my own mind, I can
hear rolling off a French troubadour's tongue ...
---·-
Puis qu'en oubli sui de vous, dous amii,
Vie amoureuse etjoie a Dieu commant.
Mar vi lejour que m'amour en vous mis,
Puis qu'en oubli sui de vous, dous amis.
Mais ce tenray queje vous aypromis,
C'est queja mais n'aray nul autre amant.
Puis qu'en oubli sui de vous, dous amis,
Vie amoureuse etjoie a Dieu commant.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
Since Iam forgotten by you, sweet friend,
Ibid farewell to a life of love and joy.
Unlucky was the day Iplaced my love in you;
Since Iam forgotten by you, sweet friend.
But what was promised you Iwill sustain:
That Ishall never have any other love.
Since Iam forgotten by you, sweet friend,
Ibid farewell to a life of love and joy.
71
Since we wrote above about a noted French poet, let us not forget the Italian poet and historian Francesco
Petrarca, otherwise remembered as Petrarch, who was born in 1341. From his writings later generations
could reconstruct the happenings in the 14th century and look back even to the times of the Roman
Empire.
The epidemic called "the Black Death", or bubonic plague made its appearance first in China and made its
way into Europe by the middle of the 14th century. By 1347 it was doing its deadly work in France, Germany
and crossed the Channel into England. Soon it was in Scandinavia and ravaged Russia in 1351, killing about
25 million people, a quarter of the European continent. There were labor shortages everywhere; wages went
up, demand for laborers in both genders was great, weakening and eventually overturning the feudal system.
There is just one more thing to write about those eventful times:
The Hundred Year War
Taken largely from History's Timeline by Jean Cook, Ann Kramer and Theodore Rowland-Entwistle
(originally published in 1977 by Crescent Books, distributed by Crown Publishers, New York), I found their
presentation a relatively simple way of summarizing this overwhelming subject. This was a seemingly
interminable struggle between England and France originating from a claim by English kings to the French
throne, based on Edward's claim through his mother, Isabella of France. . The English crown was pitted
against the Valois Capetians and each side drew many allies into the war. Its roots go back to 1066, the
time of William the Conqueror becoming King of England while retaining possession of the Duchy of
Normandy in France. In a quirky way, the rulers of Normandy (and certain other countries on the
continent) owed feudal homage to the King of France. In 1337 Edward Ill refused to pay homage to Philip
VI of France, who then, in response, confiscated Edwards' lands in Aquitaine.
Although one can see this is a manifestation of a dynastic conflict, this gave way to ideas of nationalism. It
was costly, leading to the establishment of standing armies vs. using mostly cavalries. It was also
opposed by some of the English aristocracy who lost their lands on the Continent. It also spun off limited
wars, such as the War of Roses and sparked civil wars.
The first period encompassed 1337-1360 when Edward had naval and land victories, securing large parts
of France. The second period was 1360-1396, when after some French victories the truce was extended to
1415. In the third period Henry V revived the old English claim in 1415, married the partly insane French
king Charles VI's daughter Catherine, but died in 1422 (of dysentery?), leaving a baby as his heir. In the
fourth segment the peasant girl Jeanne d'Arc poured new faith and energy into the French and largely
regained the integrity of French lands from the English. The war was officially ended by the treaty of
Picquigny in 1475, whereby the British renounced their claim to the French throne, but retained, for a
long while, the symbolic fleur-de-lis on their coat of arms.
The situation in Hungary.
Two main figures emerged on the Hungarian throne in the persons of King Charles I (1312-1342) and his
son Louis I (1342-1382). We can confidently say that during their reign Renaissance has arrived in
Hungary. The Italian connection (which started with St. Stephen obtaining his crown from the Pope)
slowly encompassed the country's cultural, humanistic and commercial relations. Considering, if nothing
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
72
else, the style of dress, we see a trend toward full-length gowns, richly embroidered cloaks, pointed shoes
and hats as an overflow from Italy. Charles I, who grew up familiar with Naples and Milan, was
knowledgeable about their financial and trading trends which would bring eventual prosperity and vitality
to feudal Hungary. Although both kings waged {and lost) military campaigns outside Hungary, the country
within was kept at peace. (Taken from the Encyclopedia Britannica): "In an era where Spain was harassed
by the Arabs, France was targeted by the English, Germany tormented by the rivalry of the princes, Italy
was the scene of bloody conflicts among its city-states, Poland and Russia were subject to Lithuanian and
Tartar attacks, Byzantine and the Balkan states subject to Turkish raids and expansion, - Hungary
flourished as an island of peace."
For a while only, I would say, as the Ottoman hordes were getting ready to overwhelm Hungary's
defenses.
SIGISMUND (1387-1437) Continued from page 62
We left the king of Hungary and Croatia at his coronation in Szekesfehervar on March 31,1387.
Sigismund, son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV of Germany, had been engaged since 1374, when he
was 6, and his bride, Mary, eldest daughter of the Hungarian king Louis I was 7. When Louis died in 1382,
Mary was destined to be Hungary's Queen and was crowned but still too young at age 11to govern. The
Queen mother, Elizabeth of Bosnia would speak for her as regent until Mary was deposed in 1385 for a
brief period, then reinstated 2 months later.
In the meantime Mary would marry Sigismund of Luxembourg in April, 1385 and after an adventurous
period she would share the reign with her husband until he, too, was crowned on March 31, 1387 to share
the crown with Mary. The pregnant queen died of a riding accident in May of 1395, leaving the throne to
her husband.
Sigismund, after his father's death in 1378, became Margrave of Brandenburg and was sent to the
Hungarian Court to learn the language and customs of Hungary, to which he became totally devoted. In
1381 his guardian and brother Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia and Germany, sent Sigismund to Poland to
learn its language and way of life. After his marriage to Mary of Hungary in 1385, Hungary became
Sigismund's chief objective and concern, especially following his coronation in 1387.
Sigismund expended lots of effort in keeping internal peace in Hungary which, at the time, was in the
hands of powerful ruling families such as the Garais and the Horvaths, some of whom supported Ladislaus,
king of Naples, son of the murdered Charles II of Hungary. It is hard to believe, but on several occasions
Sigismund as king was thrown into prison by these noble families but liberated by other influential families
who ruled between the rivers Drava and Sava in the Southern corridors of Hungary.
The Turks, headed by Sultan Bayezid I were brewing trouble in the Balkans. They had the intention of
extending their empire by reaching the banks of the Danube. In 1396 Sigismund answered Pope Bonifac
IX's call to organize a crusade against the Turks. Sigismund, at the head of a 90,000-man army (that
number is subject to scrutiny, - see the remarks below), including the Hungarian contingent, reinforced
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
73
{
by volunteers from every part of Europe with the largest contingent from France, sailed down the Danube
in a flotilla of 90 galleys to Nicopolis. Although the battle ended disastrously for Sigismund, I think it will
be beneficial to review it as an example of the difficulty of commanding the armies of several nations and
also as a study of human nature. It is not a pretty picture, but it may give us an insight into recent multinational commands, such as D-day in World War II, the Korean War, the Gulf war, and the Iraq war coupled
with the Afghanistan war, - all of which had an American majority, but enough contributions from other
nations to give its commanders worrisome moments.
The battle of Nicopolis on September 25. 1396
(
The number of participants given by medieval chronicles ranges upward of 400,000 and we are told that
the crusaders crossed the Danube in 8 days. One of the most credible accounts is credited to a certain
Johann Schiltberger of Bavaria, who was captured by the Turks early in the war and was forced to lead the
life of a slave for 30 years. During this time Schiltberger did some research and wrote an account of the
battle. Accordingly, no more than 16,000 crusaders faced 20,000 Turks. (The Turks’ quote is quite the
opposite, claiming that the Turkish forces totaled 60,000 facing 130,000 crusaders.) France contributed
10,000 men, including 2,000 knights, archers and foot soldiers. The chivalric code required that the
knights prove their valor by leading most charges even if it were not prudent to do so. Climbing the walls
of a fort certainly called for daring individual fighters more so that steel-covered knights on horseback!
(
The crusaders met at Buda castle hoping to route the Turks from the Balkans and liberate Palestine and
the Holy Sepulcher as well. The Venetian fleet was to blockade the Turks in the Sea of Marmara. Where
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
74
were the British? The English did not participate in this crusade because they would not submit to a
French-led battle-plan after nearly 100 years of animosity between them. The only English-speaking
contingent must have been limited to the Knights Hospitaller. The Italians were too involved in their
violent internal struggles between the city-states to take part in another international disaster. The Duke
of Milan, in fact, who had murdered his own uncle to ensure his political power, may have betrayed the
crusaders by passing information on troop movements to Bayezid I.
The concept of a unified command had not been worked out, which would prove disastrous for all forces
present. The names of 24-year-old and inexperienced John de Nevers of Burgundy and Constable d'Eu
are mentioned as leaders. They arrived a month late for the conference in Buda, having enjoyed too many
parties and celebrations along the way. Hungary's king Sigismund tried to argue in favor of letting the
Turks exhaust themselves on a long march through the Balkans rather than the Crusaders exhausting
themselves trying to find them, but he was rejected by the French. When the armada finally took off
following the Danube river, the going was slow, delayed by drunkard knights spending too many joyful
nights with prostitutes along the way. As mentioned above, at Orsova in the narrow Iron Gates sector of
the Danube the crusaders crossed from the left bank to the right bank on pontoons on the way to Vidin
of Bulgaria, which was by then under Turkish occupation. Upon their arrival, the citizens and the
occupying Turks seeing the great armada, surrendered to the Hungarians under Sigismund's command.
The French, however, broke off the agreement and destroyed the town and massacred its residents.
The sign of discord immediately appeared when the Hungarians considered the French action an insult to
their king and the French were insulted saying the Hungarians were trying to rob them of victory.
The crusaders continued to Nicopolis, a fortified town that prevented the approach to Constantinople. It
was well defended and under the command of Dogan Bey. The Christian army did not bring catapults
with them but tried to mount the walls using ladders which proved to be ineffective and impossible. They
settled in for a blockade around the town to starve out the population. In the meantime they entertained
themselves with drinking and carousing, not posting any sentries who would have noticed the
approaching Turkish relief column. When a group of a thousand knights and archers decided to ambush
the Turks, the French accused them of stealing the glory from John de Nevers, the chief commander.
Sigismund suggested that Wallachian foot soldiers should meet the first Turkish attack, followed by the
French cavalry, while the Hungarians would keep the Turkish cavalry from breaking out of the fortified
city. The French, naturally, denounced this plan, saying that it would be demeaning to the knights as a
"mortal insult." While the leaders were conferring, their troops got drunk over dinner and had difficulty
organizing themselves to meet the fast approaching Turks. Sigismund asked the war council to hold the
attack for two hours until the scouts brought back better battle intelligence. The French leader D'Eu
declared his disobedience saying the Hungarians wanted to hoard the battle honors for themselves.
Ignoring Sigismund's advice, they broke away and ran straight into the Turkish lines, where their horses
were speared, throwing the riders off, forcing them to struggle in their heavy armor against the mobile
Turks. Seeing this, the Wallachians simply abandoned the field while Sigismund and the Germans tried to
fight off a massacre.
A group of 1500 Serbs, fighting on the side of the Turks, overwhelmed the Hungarian force. The king
managed to escape on a fishing boat to board a Venetian boat, while the remaining Hungarians surrendered.
Sigismund declared: "We lost the day by the pride and vanity of the French."
Even the
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
75
French chronicler admitted that this was the greatest French defeat since the Battle of Roncesvalles when all
twelve peers of France were slain.
John Nevers and the chief nobles were forced to watch the brutal execution of the French army, tied together
in groups of four, naked in front of the Sultan. The other troops were marched 350 miles to Gallipoli, stripped
of their clothing and shoes where the noble captives awaited the payment of ransom for them and the rest
eventually sent home through unspeakable horrors along the way, from which many perished. French
negotiators sent a final ransom of 200,000 gold florins to the Sultan in June, 1387.
The military disaster at Nicopolis got some of the Hungarian nobles upset, not only because of the loss of
lives but because of the reputation attached to this latest "crusade." On top of that, they still had not fully
recognized the approaching Ottoman threat. The leading Hungarian families, as mentioned above, took
over the bulk of governing the country, leaving very little room for Sigismund to exercise his regal powers.
The king turned his attention to a crack in royal succession in Germany and Bohemia, in which he expressed
great interest. He enjoyed the support of Bohemia, whose king, Wenceslaus IV happened to be Sigismund's
half- brother who was childless.
On Sigismund's return to Hungary at the end of his foreign adventurism in 1401,he was imprisoned and
even twice deposed. The Hungarian king-makers swore allegiance to the last Anjou monarch, Ladislaus of
Naples, son of the murdered Charles II. Ladislaus, however, had his own problems in Italy and was
blocked militarily from furthering his plans for the Hungarian throne. Sigismund managed to hold out until
1406 when he married his dead wife Mary's cousin Barbara of German extraction.
Sigismund personally founded the Order of the Dragon, a prestigious organization, which attracted many
European leaders and monarchs as well. Sigismund encouraged international trade and regulated weights
and measures to meet European standards. The king's many absences from the country pursuing
opportunities of succession required him to turn over much of the country's governance to the office of
the Palatine, or governor. Sigismund was also a somewhat ruthless leader who did not refrain from
massacring the opposition, such as occurred in Croatia and Bosnia where 200 noble families were wiped
out who stood in Sigismund's way.
When King Rupert of Germany died in 1410 Sigismund ran in opposition to his half-brother Wenceslaus of
Bohemia and won, thanks to the support of a small majority of the "electors" to the seat of Holy Roman
Emperor. He was crowned in November of 1414 in Aachen, Germany.
With Sigismund one could never be certain as to whether an alliance that he sanctioned would hold in
reality or not. Such was the case with the Teutonic Knights against Wladyslaw Jagiello of Poland. (The
name "Jagiello" would come up in later Hungarian history.) He also got involved with the Papacy at the
time of the Great Schism and the Council of Constance in 1414 which deliberated the role of the Popes.
Sigismund journeyed to France, England and Burgundy to steer the negotiations his way. He pardoned
the Czech religious reformer, Jon Hus, yet he signed the death sentence against him, allowing the heretic
to be burned at the stake while the king was absent.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
76
After the French defeat in the battle of Agincourt against the British, Sigismund shifted sides favoring
England in which he signed an alliance with England's Henry V. In 1419 Wenceslaus of Bohemia died
which left Sigismund the titular head of that country which the Czechs would reluctantly acknowledge 17
years later at his coronation in 1436. Nevertheless, his reign lasted officially from 1419 to 1437, with the
coronation taking place in Prague in July of 1420. Sigismund was virtually powerless in governing the
Czechs as they led an armed rebellion against the king for his betrayal of Jon Hus. Sigismund led three
campaigns against the rebels and failed to control them in the so-called Hussite wars. His attention had to
turn to Hungary, which was once again under Turkish attack. The king asked for German help against the
Turks and was steadfastly refused because the German princes, among them Sigismund's former ally
Frederick I of Hohenzollern, were busy firming up their authority at the expense of the king. In 1428 he
led another fruitless campaign against the Turks, after which he busied himself negotiating for his
coronation as Emperor. He got his wish on May 31, 1433, in Rome.
Sigismund died in Moravia (now Czech Republic) on December 9, 1437 and was buried according to his
wishes in Nagyvarad, Hungary (today's Oradea in Romania). His tomb is next to that of St. Ladislaus I
whom Sigismund greatly venerated. The successor issue was resolved when his second wife, Barbara,
gave birth to their only child, a daughter named Elizabeth of Luxembourg in 1409 in the castle of Visegrad in
the Danube bend. Elizabeth would be the future Queen consort of Hungary, Bohemia and Germany.
Sigismund and his wife Barbara would have no further issue, yet there are legends of the king's several
dalliances, one of which is said to be John Hunyadi.
As the last of the Luxembourg dynasty, Sigismund allowed his son-in-law Albert of Austria to inherit his
titles. He was crowned King of Hungary on January 1, 1438 in Szekesfehervar.
ALBERT (1437-1439)
Albert ruled over several countries, including Hungary (1437-1439), Bohemia (1438-1439), Germany
(1438-1439 but not crowned) and was Duke of Austria (1404-1439) and of Luxembourg (1404-1439). Born
in Austria, he was the son of Albert IV, Archduke (foherceg) of Austria, whom he succeeded upon his father's
death when he was only 7. What was his connection to Hungary? In 1422 he married Elizabeth of
Luxembourg, daughter of King Sigismund of Hungary. Sigismund, as we had seen, was first married to
Mary from the Angevin dynasty, his second wife Barbara of Celje was descended from the old Arpad kings of
Hungary as far away as King Stephen IV (1270-1272). Sigismund's second wife Barbara was also a
descendent through her grandparents from Bosnia, Slavonia and Bohemia, providing Albert with a footing in
a number of kingdoms and principalities. King Sigismund designated Albert as his successor for Albert's role
involved in the Hussite wars. He was crowned King of Hungary on New Year's Day, 1438.
Albert was involved in defending Hungary against Turkish attacks and as "the German king of Hungary"
moved his court to Buda. During his brief 2-year rule he showed his warrior side and distinguished himself
on the battlefield. There was just one blemish in his reign and that had to do with the Jewish community
living in Austria and in Hungary.
Albert's father always managed to protect the Jews in Austria, but when he died in 1404, their situation
became more precarious, culminating in someone having torched the synagogue in Vienna, followed by
riots and lootings. When Albert came into power in Austria, he tried to figure out a way to pay for the
Hussite wars and repeatedly imposed taxes on the Jewish community to finance those wars. In some
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
77
measure the Jews were accused of collaboration with the enemy which included illegal arms trade. Added to
this was the attempt by the Church to forcibly convert the Jews to Catholicism. Those who would not convert,
were sent off in boats down the Danube, stripped of their property, and the wealthy Jews were imprisoned
and suffered painful death at the hands of Albert. 92 men and 120 women were burned at the stake outside
the Vienna city gates. This deplorable episode was much more restrained on Hungarian soil.
Albert died of dysentery in October 1439, and was buried at Szekesfehervar. He and Elizabeth of Bohemia
had four children, some of whom would take active roles in Hungarian history, namely, Ladislaus V
Posthumus, and Elizabeth (1438-1505) who married Casimir IV of Poland and gave birth to Vladislaus II of
Bohemia and later became king of Hungary as well (1490-1516).
The Jagiellonian dynasty
Before we continue, let us examine briefly the Jagiellonian dynasty which carried a significant role in
Hungarian history in the 15th and 16th centuries.
The name comes from Jagiello, the first Grand Duke of Lithuania to become King of Poland. The dynasty
was founded by Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania, who in 1386 was baptized Wladyslaw, married Queen
(then called King) Jadwiga of Poland (also known .as Hedwig, daughter of King Louis I of Hungary from the
Angevin dynasty). Jogaila was crowned King of Poland as Wladyslaw II of Jagiello.
One Jagiellonian, with whom we shall continue this review, was Vladislaus III.
VLADISLAUS lIl (I.Ulaszlo, 1440-1444)
He was the first born son of Wladyslaw II of Jagiello and Sophia of Halsany. Born on October 31, 1424 in
Krakow, Poland, he became Poland's king at age 10 and was offered the Crown of Hungary at age 16. He
was crowned in Visegrad in 1440. You might recall that Elizabeth, widow of Hungary's previous king, was
already carrying the as yet unborn child of Albert II for whom she wanted to secure the Hungarian crown.
Elizabeth and Vladislaus fought over the rights of royal succession throughout the new king's brief 4- year
reign.
Vladislaus enjoyed the support of Pope Eugene IV for organizing a new crusade against the Turks. By
launching the crusade Vladislaus actually broke a 10-year non-agression treaty with the Turks. The Pope
assured the Hungarian king that the Venetian fleet will block the Turks from exiting the Dardanelles.
Instead, the Venetians betrayed the Crusaders when they transported some 60,000 men across the
Dardanelles from Asia to Europe. Vladislaus' 20,000 crusaders met an overwhelming Turkish force at
Varna on the Black Sea on November 10, 1444.
Misjudging the situation, Vladislaus led 500 Polish cavalry against the Turks whose Janissaries easily
surrounded them and killed the Hungarian king by decapitating him. When his troops saw Vladislaus'
head displayed on a pole, they took flight. The king's royal body armor was never found, giving rise to an
interesting and unconfirmed legend.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
78
According to the legend Vladislaus managed to escape from the battle scene and surreptitiously traveled to
the Holy Land where he became a knight of St. Catharine's of Mount Sinai. He then continued to Madeira
where he found the support of King Alfonzo V of Portugal, from whom Vladislaus received rent- free land for
the rest of his life. He married the Senorita Anes whose wedding King Alfonzo also attended. From this
marriage 2 sons ensued. For the rest of his life Vladislaus wandered as a pilgrim and denied his true identity
while seeking God's forgiveness because he broke the treaty with the Turks which allowed them to march
against Hungary.
The somewhat biased Polish chronicler Jan Dlugosz alleged that Vladislaus was hiding something unusual
about his sexuality. It may have been lewd and despicable or perhaps homosexual, he did not specify.
Vladislaus may have been suspect simply because during his reign he did not marry.
A group of Polish monks questioned Vladislav in Madeira and certified that indeed he had been King of
Hungary and Poland.
LADISLAUS the POSTHUMOUS (V. Laszlo 1444-1457)
On February 22nd, 1440 Elizabeth of Luxembourg brought forth a child and it was a boy! They named him
Ladislaus, the only son of Albert II, king of the Germans and son of Elizabeth of Luxembourg, daughter of
Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund. He was born 4 months after the death of his father. By virtue of his
birth he immediately became Duke of Austria and as such the head of the House of Habsburg.
Ladislaus' mother had the Holy Crown of Hungary stolen from Visegrad (the boy was born in Komarom by
the Danube, on the side which today belongs to Slovakia). Elizabeth took the crown with her to Wiener
Neustadt in Austria and word-of-mouth stories relate the cause of the cross on top knocked askew
because of the damage it suffered in transit. The 4-year-old Ladislaus was crowned in Szekesfehervar on
May 15th, 1440. This makes the story very interesting, because his predecessor, Vladislaus, or U-Laszlo I,
the U standing for "Utoszulott'',or Posthumous, was crowned on the same day at Visegrad. The question
remains which of the two "kings" was crowned with St. Stephen's crown?
Fortunately for us, we have an answer to this question. The Holy Crown had been kept and guarded in a
virtual hole in the wall in a room-size safe together with the royal treasures in the fort at Visegrad. A Mrs.
John Kottaner, lady-in-waiting to the queen mother Elizabeth made copious notes about her adventure in
spiriting the crown with the help of an unnamed conspirator from Visegrad to Komarom where Elizabeth
was about to give birth. She managed to break the lock to the Treasury in the middle of the night on
February 21st, \1440 and hid the crown in a large red velvet pillow which she claimed was necessary for
her long carriage ride the next day. Ladislaus was born the next day and via torturous routes Elizabeth
smuggled the crown to Szekesfehervar where she had her son crowned with it on May 15, 1440. Still
without the Holy Crown, the country's king-makers proceeded to crown Vladyslaus on the same day, May
15th, with a decorative crown knocked off the case which held St. Stephen's relic. On June 29th they
declared the surreptitious crowning of Elizabeth's baby null and void. Elizabeth died in Gyor on December
17, 1442 never having given up her son's claim to the throne.
Just to be safe, Elizabeth placed baby Ladislaus under the guardianship of the Habsburg Frederick V.
Ladislaus was held in Schloss Ort as a virtual prisoner. Ladislaus would be adequately educated and
prepared for rule by the priest Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, the future Pope II Pius who wrote a book on all
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
70
the subjects Ladislaus was supposed to study, including the languages of the countries he would rule, that is
German, Latin, Czech and Hungarian. Other subjects were rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and
music, religion and military science. Copies of some of those books are still extant today.
Upon the death of Vladislaus at the Battle of Varna on November 10th, 1444, a delegation of the nobles of
Hungary came to have the child surrendered to them, together with the Holy Crown. Frederick refused
both requests. In the king's absence John Hunyadi, whose name was commonplace because of his
victories over the Turks in the Balkans, acted as Regent for the infant Ladislaus in Hungary. Both the
Hungarian and the Austrian estates were unhappy and restless with Frederick's decision. Finally, in 1452,
the Slovenian magnate Ulrich II, Count of Celje and cousin of the deceased Elizabeth, forced Frederick to
surrender the child to him as his new guardian.
When Ladislaus Posthumus turned 13, he was finally crowned King of Bohemia in 1453. Having been the
virtual king of Hungary since November 10, 1444 (when the previous king died), he preferred living in
Vienna and Prague. He and his guardian, Ulrich, remained indifferent to the threat of Turkish invasion
and were antagonistic toward Governor Hunyadi. When Hunyadi died on August 11,1456 having contracted
a disease in the battle of Nandorfehervar (today's Belgrade), King Ladislaus replaced him with Ulrich in the
same position.
One of Hunyadi's sons, Ladislaus (Laszlo), was implicated in the murder of Ulrich and was beheaded on
March 16, 1457. The story of the legendary Hunyadis was put to music by Hungarian composer Ferenc
Erkel in the 1844 opera Hunyadi Laszlo. Erkel was also the composer of Bank ban, to which we had
already referred on page 38 in connection with the 1213 story of King Andrew II. Ultimately, Erkel's name
is synonymous with Hungary' national anthem which he composed.
The execution of Laszlo Hunyadi raised the level of hostility against the king and he fled to live in Prague
for the rest of his life. He died in Prague on November 23, 1457 unmarried and without a child. Early
rumors spoke about having been poisoned, but modern medical research suspects that he was suffering
from leukemia which was not recognized as a disease in his time. He is buried in St. Vitus Cathedral in
Prague. He was only 17years old.
For their next king, Hungary elected Matthias Corvinus, brother of the martyred Laszlo Hunyadi.
Before we present the next king, we must spend time with John Hunyadi, one of the leading figures in
Hungarian history.
JOHN HUNYADI (cca 1446-1456)
John Hunyadi and his father, Vajk of Romanian noble ancestry, were involved
in the warring contest between the two fractions supporting either Vladislaus
(Ulaszlo) or the minor Ladislaus V.
The Hunyadis were on the part of
Ladislaus V and won their decisive victory in January, 1441. Vajk had resettled
in 1409 from what was called Havasalfold, Wallachia, in today's Romania
when he received as a reward for service to King Sigismund his first fortified
village called Hunyadvar, later changed to Vajdahunyad, in Transylvania.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
80
John Hunyadi acquired his military skills while fighting the Ottoman Turks on the Southern borders of
Hungary. Appointed governor (voivode) of Transylvania, he assumed responsibility for defense of the
southern frontiers in 1441. Those battles against the Turks didn't always go well, but Hunyadi's bravery and
military skills made him stand out in Hungarian history. His early defeats at Varna in 1444 and Kosovo in 1448
were soon supplanted by successes at Nandorfehervar (today's Belgrade) against the Turks led by the Sultan
himself.
He was popular among the lesser nobility and was appointed as one of the 7 "Captains of the Realm" for
administrative affairs. The next Diet appointed Hunyadi as the sole regent with the title of governor. He
resigned from that position in 1452, by which time he became one of the wealthiest landowners in the
kingdom with 2.3 million hectares of land, 28 castles, 57 towns and about 1000 villages. But he used a
substantial portion of his wealth to finance Hungary's wars against the Ottomans. No doubt, in 1457 his
fame contributed to the election of his son, Matthias Corvinus as Hungary's next king. Later Hungarian
historians were quick to bring him down one notch. Gaspar Heltai for example, invented the story that
Hunyadi was the illegitimate son of King Sigismund of Luxembourg and Elizabeth Morzsinai, a virgin
noblewoman of Cuman origin.
In 1432 John Hunyadi married Erzsebet Szilagyi, a Hungarian noblewoman, and they had two children,
Ladislaus and Matthias Corvinus. Ladislaus would be executed on King Ladislaus V's order for the alleged
murder of Ulrich II of Celje, a relative of the king. Matthias, however, was elected king on January 20, 1458
upon King Ladislaus' death.
There are documents to the effect that John Hunyadi was not only held in high regard by King Sigismund,
but he served also as his money lender, as Sigismund was always short of funds. A loan agreement, for
example, shows that Hunyadi lent Sigismund 1200 gold florins in 1434. - He was also a trusted adviser of
King Ladislaus Posthumous. For his bravery in battle he was granted the captaincy of the fortress of
Nandorfehervar (today's Belgrade) which he shared with Mihaly Ujlaki, featured in the later crucial battle
of that fortress. With the limited military forces at his disposal, Hunyadi could still inflict major damage in
the Turkish battle lines. One memorable campaign showed Hunyadi at the head of his troops as they
occupied Sofia, defeating Sultan Murad, thus breaking the Turks' dominance over Bosnia, Herzegovina,
Serbia, Bulgaria and Albania. Turkish envoys of Murad offered him a 10-year truce. The representative
of Pope Eugene IV, Cardinal Julian Cesarini, advised the Hungarian king that swearing to a document
involving the infidels was invalid, and thus the king and Hunyadi swore to and signed a traitorous truce
which the king had no intention of keeping.
Disaster was sure to follow as we wrote about the Battle of Varna on Page 77. Multiple circumstances would
ultimately cause the loss of the November 10, 1444 battle and the death of King Vladislaus. The Venetian
fleet committed a traitorous act when they transported, reportedly for one gold florin per soldier, the Turks
from across the Bosporus to Europe allowing them to advance to the Black Sea port of Varna. Initially
Hunyadi enjoyed full command of his troops, but the impatient king assumed command, resulting in total
wipeout at the hands of the Janissaries. Displaying the king's head on a pole caused disarray among the
Hungarian troops who fled or were captured. Hunyadi barely escaped, only to be captured by Vlad Dracul
of Wallachia, technically Hunyadi's ally. The Palatine of Hungary threatened Dracul to have Hunyadi
released or else.
With Hungary teetering on the verge of anarchy, the Diet elected Hunyadi on June 5, 1446 to the post of
Regni Gubernator, or regent for the whole country. As one of his first acts, he marched against Vienna to
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
81
force German king Frederick Ill to release the infant Ladislaus V. When Frederick refused, Hunyadi went
on a rampage in Styria and Carinthia, threatening Vienna. His efforts to sign an agreement with Frederick
failed repeatedly. The list of his political enemies included Ulrich II of Celje who accused Hunyadi of
attempting to overthrow the king, who was still a virtual prisoner of Frederick with the nominal
guardianship of Ulrich. In this volatile atmosphere Hunyadi relinquished his title and position as regent.
Nandorfehervar
The Turks never gave up on their plans to conquer Hungary and reach Vienna. Standing in their way was
the stronghold of Nandorfehervar's castle-fortress (today called Belgrade in Serbia). In the March 2009
issue of my correspondence "In translation", I wrote a story entitled "For whom the bells toll" about this
memorable segment in Hungarian history, which I want to reproduce here.
The American writer Ernest Hemingway's novel about the Spanish Civil War bears a similar title with one
bell tolling. The Hungarian historian Laszlo Simon, on whose report my story is based, chose the title to
illustrate the victory of Hungarian forces over the expanding Ottoman Empire at Nandorfehervar on July
23, 1456. The city where the big battle took place surfaces in Hungarian history of St. Stephen's time,
when Magyar troops occupied the Byzantine city and gave its name, which translates to Nandor's White
Castle.
In 1453 the Turks crossed the Bosporus and occupied Byzantium, the rich capital of the Byzantine Empire
(later called Constantinople and today Istanbul), in their march against the Christian West. Emperor
Constantine was so confident in the fortifications of the city that he turned down the offer made by the
Transylvanian Orban to adopt his invention of new artillery. Orban then made the offer to the Turkish Sultan
who armed his forces with the new field guns and was successful in destroying Byzantium. This was a major
blow to Christianity and Pope Nicholas V called for a crusade against the Moslem Turks. The Southern
borders of Western culture followed the lower Danube river (see the illustration above). The gigantic task fell
to the Hungarian kingdom to foil the Turkish invasion. In charge of the Christian forces was the legendary
John Hunyadi.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
82
A week or two before the battle, Pope Callixtus Ill ordered to have all church bells rung at noon and to say
the Angelus for the success of the Crusade to recover Constantinople. Pope Alexander VI issued a papal
bull in 1500 connecting the tolling of bells at noon with the victory at Nandorfehervar.
Answering the Pope's call to arms, Hunyadi began preparations, - mostly at his own expense. The Hungarian
nobility was jealous of Hunyadi and reluctant to help him, fearing his power more than the Ottoman threat.
The Turkish leader, Mehmet II assembled a force of 100,000 and was headed for the Hungarian border at
Nandorfehervar, located at the confluence of the Danube and Sava rivers.
The fortress is on top of a 150 foot tall hill encompassing a territory 320 meters by 175 meters (960 ft x 525
ft). Three sides of the fort fell precipitously toward the rivers, but the southern exposure had a relatively easy
access. To limit the access to invaders, they constructed two stone walls on this side, separated by a deep
ravine and connected by a draw bridge. Against the Turkish armada Hunyadi could only muster about 25,30,000 men. Thanks mostly to the Franciscan friar Giovanni da Capistrano, who arrived in Hungary from
Italy during 1455 and preached the message of crusade effectively among the peasants, who flocked to
Hunyadi's banners (although ill-equipped with slings and scythes). At the beginning of the hostilities at
Nandorfehervar, Hunyadi's brother-in-law, Mihaly Szilagyi and his own son Laszlo Hunyadi had only a force
of 5-7,000 men in the castle. Mehmet set up his artillery and started the siege on July 4, 1456.
It is interesting to consider that 500 years separate two fateful dates. One, in 1456, to rid Christianity of
the threat posed by Moslems; the other, in 1956, Hungarians' struggle to rid themselves of the oppressive
Soviet forces. The 1956 revolution broke out on October 23, the feast day of Saint John Capistran
which may be a coincidence.
John Capistran and John Hunyadi boarded the first segment of the crusaders on five ships and sailed down
the Danube toward Nandorfehervar. Hunyadi, realizing the inadequacy of his forces against the Turks,
stayed clear of a frontal attack on the enemy. (Perhaps he had memories haunting him of the battle at
Varna.) The Turks had put together a fleet of some 200 ships, including 64 battle galleys with 3 rows of
paddlers in each, and sealed off the Danube. Hunyadi sent a message to his brother-in-law Szilagyi at the
fort to make his 40-some vessels ready and sail upriver toward the Turkish blockade. Arriving with his 5
boats above the Turkish armada, Hunyadi requisitioned all local fishing boats and transferred his forces to
anything that floated. Stealthily approaching the Turkish vessels, the Hungarians smashed the paddles of
the enemy ships and broke the chain holding the boats together, thus breaking the naval blockade and
capturing 24 vessels. The rest of the Turkish boats, free of the chained restraints, floated down the
Danube, only to be met by Szilagyi's 40 boats which did major damage in the Turkish river forces.
Hunyadi was able to take much-needed food and other supplies to the besieged city. Mehmet ll's heavy
artillery, after a week of heavy bombardment, managed to breach the fortress walls in several places. The
Hungarians lighted some tarred wood and other flammables and threw them at the invaders. Some
Turkish flags with a horse's tail began appearing on the walls. When one janissary nearly managed to pin
the Sultan's flag on top of a bastion, a soldier by the name of Titus Dugovics, grabbed him and together
they plunged to their death from the wall. This heroic scene is forever commemorated in Hungarian
paintings. For his patriotism and valor, Hunyadi's son, King Matthias elevated the Dugovics family to
nobility three years later.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
83
As the sun rose on July 22nd, the defenders were at the end of their strength and resilience. The attackers at
the foot of the walls, were awaiting their orders to resume the attack, when the unexpected happened.
Capistrano and some of his soldiers, including a group of archers, crossed the Sava river and from the
narrow strip between the two rivers heckled the Turkish cavalry on the other side of the Danube. The
Turks sent one wave of cavalrymen after another, but they were cut down by the arrows. Capistrano
then, sensing a divine inspiration, raised his Cardinal's cross and at the head of his troops attacked the
Ottoman forces from the rear. The unexpected direction of the attack threw the Turks off balance and
they panicked. The Hungarians, capturing the artillery pieces, turned them against the Turks. The Sultan
himself was wounded in the battle. The enemy withdrew and under cover of darkness abandoned their
camp. Nandorfehervar was a complete victory not only for Hungarians but also for Christianity. In the
ensuing 70 years the Turkish Sultans did not launch an attack against the West. The fort finally fell in 1521 to
Sultan Suleyman, followed by a decisive battle against Hungary in 1526 at Mohacs.
In the aftermath of the victorious battle, plague broke out in the Hungarian camp in which John Hunyadi
himself died three weeks later on August 11,1456. He was buried in the Roman Catholic Cathedral at
Alba lulia, formerly Gyulafehervar, now in Romania, next to his younger brother, also called John. - John
Capistrano retired to a Hungarian Franciscan cloister where, at age 70 he died on October 23, 1456.
Miracles began happening almost immediately at his grave. Following a roster of more than 400 such
cases and an interminable investigation, Capistrano was finally canonized in 1690.
Sultan Mehmet II paid Hunyadi a tribute: "Although he was my enemy I feel grief over his death, because
the world has never seen such a man." And Pope Callixtus Ill reminisced: "The light of the world has passed
away."
For him, for John Capistrano and for all the brave souls at Nandorfehervar, let the bells toll every day at
noon, forever.
Following the death of John Hunyadi, King Ladislaus V appointed his uncle, Ulrich of Celje to the Regent's
post which Hunyadi's son, Laszlo Hunyadi also coveted. As the king, accompanied by his Regent, entered
Nandorfehervar to take over the fort, Ulrich was killed on November 9, 1456 and the king himself became
Laszlo Hunyadi's prisoner. A month later the king appointed Hunyadi to the Regent's post and was given
free passage to Buda. Laszlo was accompanied on this journey by his younger brother, Matthias, precisely a
move which the elder Hunyadi had warned about, placing both Hunyadi boys within the grasp of the king.
Soon, however, the king reversed himself and betraying Laszlo he had him arrested. Tried and falsely
convicted of treason, he was beheaded on March 16, 1457 under tragic circumstances. The executioner's
blade could not cut through Hunyadi's thick hair. By tradition, following three attempts the king had the
option of giving the prisoner his freedom. Instead, in Hunyadi's case Ladislaus V gave the order to the
executioner to strike again. This time the blade hit its mark.
John Hunyadi's other son, Matthias was imprisoned in the castle of the Czech governor in Prague. King
Ladislaus V died of the plague on November 23, 1457 in Prague. The Hunyadi supporter and brother-in- law
Mihaly Szilagyi's forces coerced the kingmaker nobility to elect Matthias as Hungary's new king and paid off
the Czech governor to free him from prison.
Matthias Corvinus began his reign on February 14, 1458.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
Matthias Corvinus
84
(
MATTHIAS CORVINUS (Hunyadi Matyas 1458-1490)
Born on February 23, 1443 in Kolozsvar, Transylvania (now Cluj-Napoca,
Romania) he became king of Hungary and Croatia when he was only 14
King of Hungary and Croatia
years old. During his successful lifetime he was made King of Bohemia
as well, in addition to being Duke of Austria. Matthias spoke several of the leading tongues of his time.
He was a true Renaissance leader, patron of arts and sciences, holding education and law as the focus of
his reign. He was the second son of John Hunyadi, famed general and governor of Hungary, in whose
military campaigns Matthias participated as early as 12 years of age.
He was united in a pre-arranged marriage with Elizabeth of Celje, daughter of Ulrich II of Celje, who was
for a time the guardian of the underage king Ladislaus V. Regrettably, Elizabeth died at age 15 in
November of 1455, before the marriage could be consummated, leaving Matthias a widower at age 12.
His life started among great controversy as several parties, including his brother, Laszlo Hunyadi, were
vying for the Crown. On the transparent pretext in an imaginary conspiracy against King Ladislaus V,
Matthias was condemned to death by decapitation, but spared death on account of his age. In November,
1457, eight months after Laszlo Hunyadi was beheaded, King Ladislaus V died of what we now
understand was leukemia, but at the time they suspected poisoning. Matthias was taken hostage by
George Podebrady, governor (and later king) of Bohemia, supposedly to keep him safe in Prague and
nurturing him for eventual access to Hungary's throne. While in Podebrady's custody, Matthias was
forcibly engaged to his daughter, Catherine.
With King Ladislaus dead, the country needed a new king. The elector barons reasoned that Matthias
would be easy prey in their hands, while the nobles were against the choice. The people feared of another
foreign king when the Diet met to elect a king. Matthias' uncle Mihaly Szilagyi appeared on the scene
with 15,000 veterans in tow to give Matthias support. On January 20th, 1458 forty-thousand people
marched up the frozen Danube and unanimously proclaimed Matthias as their king. Matthias made his
entry to Buda on February 14th, 1458 and began his reign.
The new king was 14 years old at the time. Such a thing could not happen in the 21st century.
The era and aura of Matthias Corvinus
Matthias was without dynastic ancestry, so he had to establish himself merely on the strength of his
personality and the value of his judgement. To start with, he heralded in a new judiciary era, some of it
observed traveling among the people in guise. He strengthened the supremacy of the Parliament (Diet)
and centralized in the hands of capable, educated individuals chosen by the king, reducing the power and
influence of the feudal lords.
At this time the country was being threatened by the Ottomans from the South, by Emperor Frederick
Ill from the West, Casimir IV of Poland from the North and internal struggles with nobles threatening
from within. Matthias, already engaged to George Podebrady's daughter Catherine, married her on May
(
1, 1461. Matthias demoted some of the most influential magnates in his government, levied a new tax
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
85
enabling him to establish a mercenary military, the so-called "Fekete Sereg", or Black Legion of about 25,000
men, answerable strictly to the King. His relations stabilized with the Bohemians through his father-in-law
Podebrady, (who became the country's king) giving Matthias a free hand in turning his attention to Frederick
Ill, forcing the Emperor to recognize Matthias as the sovereign of Hungary and returning the Holy Crown to
Matthias in April 1462 against a payment of 60,000 golden ducats.
Matthias turned against the Turks and chased Ali Pasha out of Bosnia, restoring Hungary's sovereignty in
that region. Returning from the war, Matthias had himself crowned with the Holy Crown on March 24, 1464.
Tragedy struck when, twenty-one days later the 15-year-old Queen Catherine died in childbirth. Her child
was a stillborn son. Matthias was left without a wife and the throne without an heir.
Matthias applied the time-tested method of the Romans on his obstructionist barons. "Divide et impera"
- divide and conquer, he beat back his internal enemies and concentrated on expanding the realm to its
largest extent from the present-day Bavaria to the west, Dalmatia to the south, parts of Carpathian
Ukraine to the east and southwestern Poland to the north. Nevertheless, central Europe was about to
undergo turbulent years, putting great strain on the Black Legion.
Matthias was fortunate in his taxation policies which did not turn the population against him, despite the new
levies raised because the king's economic policies created new jobs and a certain economic prosperity
especially among the peasantry. He collected taxes (called "aids") from the cities annually and even dipped
into the Church coffers which did not make many friends for him in those circles. State monopolies on gold,
silver and salt mining as well as customs fees raised the State's income to over 1 million golden forints per
year as much as the French and English kings could account for.
Besides the constant threat of the Turks against Hungary's southern borders, the country had three "most
wily" (Istvan Sisa's term in "The spirit of Hungary”) adversaries to contend with. They were the Holy
Roman Emperor Frederick Ill, the Czech Giskra and George Podebrady, King of Bohemia. The last one was
the shrewdest of them all who would sign pacts with his neighbors while signing pacts with others against
the rest of them. Podebrady was a Hussite whom Pope Paul II could not tolerate. In fact, in 1465 the
Pope excommunicated Podebrady and ordered his neighboring leaders to depose him. This put Matthias in
a difficult position, because of his personal relations with his father-in-law, the Bohemian leader, whom he
was charged by the Pope to depose. Enjoying the good advice of Bishop (later Archbishop) John Vitez, a
man of exceptional diplomatic talent, Matthias held his own against all three of his adversaries.
Matthias first marched against the Czechs, capturing a number of fortresses, then offering Giskra 40,000
golden florins to disband his army, which the financially strapped Giskra accepted. In 1467 Matthias
marched against Moldavia and lost the battle of Baia, then in 1468 he invaded Bohemia whose Catholics
elected him as their king, effectively partitioning the country. But the election was nixed by contrary
preferences of both the Pope and the Emperor.
Matthias hit next upon Emperor Frederick, conquering Frederick's main fortresses, forcing the Emperor to
sign a peace accord paying 400,000 florins to Matthias as war indemnity.
The peace treaty also specified that in case Matthias should die without a male heir, either Frederick or his
heir would succeed Matthias on the throne of Hungary. This would have disastrous consequences for
Hungary in the future, opening the way (and not closing it for nearly 400 years) for the Habsburgs to rule
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
86
over Hungary. Matthias never imagined that he would not produce a male heir and signed the treaty without
thinking of the consequences.
In an attempt to satisfy the Pope's order to depose the Hussite king Podebrady, Matthias fought an
extended and difficult campaign against his father-in-law ending in the Olmutz treaty of 1469, signed by
both kings. Matthias was crowned king of Bohemia, Moravia, Silezia and Lausitz. In March, 1471
Podebrady suddenly died. The Poles, taking advantage of the new king of Bohemia, invaded Bohemia
with 60,000 men, but could not stand up to Matthias' military and returned home.
Matthias could bask in his new crown, but his private life, having lost two wives, left a lot to be desired.
Visiting Breslau, his eyes fell upon the Mayor's daughter, 20 year old Barbara Krebs. Being of commoner
blood, Barbara was not an eligible choice for a queen, so Matthias took her as his mistress with her father's
consent. The romance bloomed for six years. She moved in with the king in Buda, living in secluded
quarters and gave birth to a boy whom they christened Janos (John).
Foreign policy and domestic matters
In foreign policy Matthias was yet to face a period with serious consequences. The wily old Podebrady had
devised a scheme before his death. It appears that upon Podebrady's death a 15-year-old boy named
Wladislas, the son of the Polish king Casimir, was appointed king of Bohemia, not Matthias. Ten years of
fighting at the cost of 2 1/2 million golden forints went for nothing. He remained king of Moravia, Silezia and
Lausitz, but Matthias lost the crown of Bohemia.
While in Breslau, Matthias received news of a conspiracy brewing against him on the home front. Some of
the old aristocracy, including Archbishop John Vitez, the poet Ianus Pannonius, Miklos Ujlaki and others
wanted to dethrone Matthias and replace him with the Polish king Casimir. In fact, Casimir was already
en route to Hungary at the head of his troops. Matthias traveled at incredible speed from Breslau to Buda to
surprise the conspirators in the midst of negotiations. Matthias chose a peaceful means of dealing with the
masterminds by inviting each to private conferences, offering them high positions or estates, asking them
to rally against an impending attack on Hungary by Polish forces. He then convened the national
assembly and shamed them into giving Matthias their full support. Of the conspirators, Ianus Pannonium
was sentenced to house arrest, while Archbishop Vitez died shortly thereafter. King Casimir and Matthias
signed a 4-year peace treaty.
At the end of the summer in 1474 Casimir, the new Polish king, assembled a united Polish-Czech army of
80,000, supported by Frederick Ill and marched on Breslau which was defended only by 8,000 of Matthias'
men. Casimir was counting on a battle in an open field where he would have had an advantage, however,
Matthias opted to stay within the fortified city. The defenders burnt everything the enemy could have
used for food, virtually starving Casimir's forces which eventually sued for peace.
Matthias rightfully was in a magnanimous mood because a delegation had returned from Italy with great
news. Princess Beatrix of Aragonia, daughter of the Neapolitan king Ferdinand I of Naples, had accepted
Matthias's proposal of marriage. The marriage of Beatrix and Matthias Corvinus took place in 1476 when
the groom was 33 years of age. The splendid ceremony in Buda Castle was followed by a reception for
400 guests for whom a banquet was prepared using pure gold place settings.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
87
This differs sharply from another piece of news which reached Matthias in Breslau. Barbara Krebs decided to
enter a convent. Her son's upbringing would now be in the hands of Elizabeth Szilagyi and later his education
would be at the king's Court. Let me also share with you a quirky detail in the internal workings of the "King's
Court." According to an ancient Hungarian custom, in case the queen survives (outlives) her king, she may
remain queen by marrying the next king (unless he is already married). Indeed, there have been a few
instances when there occurred two (or more) queens in the same royal house (or castle-) hold. Queen Beatrix,
apparently, was already looking beyond Matthias' death (Istvan Sisa's term).
Probably even more important and more urgent events forced Matthias to turn his attention to the
Turkish threat. In 1479 a huge Ottoman army was ravaging Transylvania. Matthias saw this as a good
opportunity to trap the Turks in the Carpathian mountains of Transylvania, which he did at Szaszvaros
(modern Orastie) and annihilated it in a series of attacks. He also drove the Ottomans from Serbia and
from most of Bosnia. But the Turks had a lot of soldiers to sacrifice. In 1480 they seized Otranto in the
Kingdom of Naples, which begged for the Hungarian Black Legion's help. The name of Balazs Magyar,
- an appropriate name for a "Magyar'' general,- stands out in the battle which liberated the kingdom from
the Turks in 1481.
The same year a rare opportunity arose for the Western European nations to deliver to the Ottomans when
Sultan Mehmet II died, leading to a virtual civil war between his sons Bayezid and Cem. The latter fled to the
Knights of Rhodes who kept him in custody in France. Matthias claimed the rights to have custody of Cem,
being the Turk's nearest neighbor. He would have used such a valuable hostage to extort concessions from
Bayezid. The problem, which embittered Matthias against the Pope, was that neither the Pope, nor the French
would accept such a deal. In those days the Pope and his allies over whom he held the sword of Damocles
in spiritual matters, carried substantial weight in making foreign policy decisions as well.
Political expediencies sometimes lead to strange bedfellows. It appears that one of Matthias' second
degree cousins, Vlad the Impaler, Prince of Wallachia, better known as Dracula had had some success
fighting the Ottoman Turks, yet the two leaders had substantial differences, ending in the imprisonment of
Vlad in Buda. The leaders of Western countries supported the Wallachian leader for his bravery against the
heathen Turks and forced Matthias to gradually restore his freedom. Eventually he would end up
marrying Matthias' cousin, Ilona Szilagyi. Vlad met his Maker (or more likely meeting the devil) when he
was assassinated in Wallachia in 1476.
The royal court of Matthias and Beatrix reflected the king's power and standing in 15th century Hungary.
The country's population had reached 4 million, the same as contemporary England. The majority of 77%
were ethnic Hungarians. Austria in those days, together with Bohemia and Silesia, had 5.5 million people.
Matthias' hopes for an heir remained unfulfilled. His natural son, John, was educated at the Court and
given the title of Duke, - which Beatrix resented. In fact, the relations between King and Queen poisoned
the atmosphere, while matters of foreign policy kept deteriorating with Frederick Ill trying to gain
headway in Hungary for the Habsburg dynasty, and the Turks increasing pressure on Hungary. As
mentioned above, the Turks marched into Transylvania, fighting the forces of governor (voivode) lstvan
Bathory. When Matthias came to the aid of Bathory, fortunes turned around and the Turks lost 30,000
men at Kenyermezo. The hero of the victory was the Hungarian General PaI Kinizsi, a physical giant who
was able to raise a millstone in one hand while sounding off his stentorian voice heard throughout the
valley.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
88
In fact, Kinizsi became the terror of the Turks when he was seen riding into battle brandishing a sword in
each hand. As contemporary historians chuckled to say that Kinizsi was afraid of one person, Benigna, his
wife, a petite woman half his size.
Matthias came close to fulfilling his dream of taking the place of Frederick Ill as Holy Roman Emperor. In a
series of battles Matthias bested Frederick by taking several Austrian cities, ultimately coming to the top
prize: Vienna. He marched into Vienna in great pomp and circumstance on June 1, 1485 and made that
city his capital. His dream, though, would not become reality, for the Emperor designated his son
Maximilian as his heir, - and the German Dukes agreed to it. Matthias was just about at the top of his
game, except for the fact that he had still not been able to secure a grand position for John, his illegitimate
son. Queen Beatrice fiercely opposed the idea. Matthias, having been crippled long by gout, died on
April 6, 1490 at age 47 in Vienna.
The Italian Renaissance in 15th century Hungary.
Italian Renaissance came on the bridal coach of Queen Beatrix. The young Leonardo da Vinci met
Matthias in 1485, when da Vinci painted a Madonna for the king's Summer Palace in Visegrad. Writing on
the painter's visit with the Royals, da Vinci reported on the customs of the Hungarian Court. The king loved
paintings and maps of the known world and loved astronomical instruments made for him by visiting
scientist. His famous library, the Bibliothequa Corviniana, was only second in size to the Vatican library.
Matthias was exceptionally intelligent as he was fluent in Hungarian, Italian, German, Greek, Latin,
Rumanian and Bohemian. In addition, this cultured and autocratic king was the finest sportsman of his
country, excelling in horsemanship and undefeated champion of the Continent in lance-thrust.
I could best illustrate the presence of Italian Renaissance by referring to an article in Istvan Sisa's book (The
spirit of Hungary, p. 65). The following excerpts and commentaries by Hungarian historian Geza lstvanyi
describe the magnificence of Matthias' Renaissance court:
"Matthias was a master at framing his Renaissance personality in suitably lavish forms. Triumphal
processions and colorful ceremonies followed his victories, accompanied meetings with other leaders and
his own marriage. His Court at Buda was richer than that of the Italian princelings of the day. Matthias
finished the building of the Royal Palace which had been started in the time of Sigismund. The building
itself was unchanged from the original plans, but the decorations showed the colors of the Renaissance.
There were plenty of palmettas, dolphins, pillars and rosettes. The rooms had finely carved doors, bronze
candelabras and white marble fountains. The floors were covered with Florentine carpets. A legion of
artists, native and foreign found constant employment."
Foreign ambassadors wrote enthusiastically of the festivals and ceremonies; Court musicians came from
Italy and Burgundy and the choir in the Royal Chapel aroused the admiration of the envoy of the Holy See.
But the character of the Court was given by the humanists. Great scholars often accompanied the king to
battles so that he could converse with them en route. It was one of those scholars, Antonio Bonfini, who
gave the king his surname of Corvinus, after which his library, containing some 500 volumes of codices,
is also named.
***
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
89
Matthias was popular in spite of having raised the taxes mostly on the peasantry and they sustained the
king's lavish lifestyle. His Black Army cost a lot of money, but it gained respect for the Hungarian monarch.
Following the king's death, the army went marauding across the country and created a lot of conflict within
the population. In 1486 Matthias introduced a new Code of justice to insure that everyone received equal
justice. Matthias' favorite way of tracking public opinion was to sneak out of the Palace dressed incognito
and by dawn the country would recognize him as the king who meted out immediate punishment for
wrongdoing. Songs and stories attest to his evenhanded justice, which, after his death created the saying:
"Meghalt Matyas kiraly, oda az igazsag!" (King Matthias has died, justice is gone).
One of the most memorable folk tales about Matthias' justice is about the Sheriff of Kolozsvar. The sheriff
in question was notorious for abusing his authority by forcing the poor folks to cut and saw firewood for
him without paying compensation for the work. One day Matthias was walking the streets in disguise,
when the sheriff spotted the stranger and ordered him to split wood in the public square. The king did
just that, but carved his initials (M R = Matthias Rex) into each piece. The following day the King made an
official visit to Kolozsvar on horseback. Replying to the king's question as to how things were going, the
sheriff assured the king that he is conducting business according to law. The king then had the cut logs
brought out and pointed to the initials to the sheriff as evidence of abusing the people. The sheriff
recognized the misdeed and begged the king for mercy. Matthias had the sheriff severely punished.
My personal favorite is a little-known story by the Hungarian novelist Kalman Mikszath, which reflects
somewhat coquettishly on King Matthias' predilection for the feminine physique. A remnant from my
high school Hungarian literature classes, the memory of this particular story came to haunt me, until Denes
Szechy, dear classmate of mine from Budapest finally found itunder the title "Szelistyei Asszonyok" (Women
of Szelistye). The king gets word of the exceptional qualities of the product of this village and is anxious to
pass personal judgement on the visual treasure that this place is holding under cover.
The Court announces a "contest" among the best-looking women of Szelistye, a Hungarian village.
Szelistye is to send a delegation of three of its citizens to pass "muster" whether the village can rightfully
claim the title to its product of beauty. The three representatives are selected and sent to the Court in
Buda where the king reviews the offering and puts his talent at passing judgement to good use. With each
one Matthias finds the right tone of voice but his eyes get caught on the third lady who has exceptionally
beautiful, long hair. He leads the conversation toward his wish to touch the bounty on top of the pretty
lady's head.
Trying to bargain with the woman, he coaxes her to say that a couple of acres of farm land would be nice to
have, but is inaccessible for her because of the cost. Matthias finds an easy solution: he would donate as
much land to her as much hair, laid end-to-end, could encircle it. The woman from Szelistye, doubting the
validity of the offer, wants to know how would the measuring be done? The king says we would have to
count each one of her tresses. But how can we trust that the count is accurate? Matthias has an answer
for that, too. He says he would do it himself, because there is no one else that she could trust, except
the king.
Mikszath had a unique writing style and I am truly sorry that it could not be accurately translated from
flavorful Hungarian to English. But the spirit of the story is readily transparent and believable.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
90
The image of "Matthias the Just" developed on legends and stories collected in the early 16th century
copied into the so-called Gyongyos Codex and in Gaspar Heltai's chronicles published in 1575, presenting
Matthias as the king always on the side of the poor, the oppressed and his portrait greatly improved with the
passage of time. There was, however, a different side of the king. The picture became prettier and prettier in
the memory of future generations.
Since Matthias and Beatrix had no natural children of their own, Matthias nominated John Corvinius, his
natural-born son as his heir. There seems to be sufficient evidence to suggest that Beatrix artificially prevented
her own fertilization because she was aspiring to become Queen of Hungary after Matthias's death.
Additionally, there were two other aspirants to the throne: the Czech king, Wladislas Jagello II (since 1471)
and Miksa Habsburg, Holy Roman Emperor since 1486. We'll recall that the agreement between Matthias and
Sigismund called for the Habsburg succession in case the Hunyadi-branch died out without a male heir. The
Hungarian titled families were also hoping that the Habsburgs would be better able to provide military aid
against the Ottoman threat than the Jagellos. As we will find out later, however, when the Turks opened an
overall attack against Hungary, the Germans showed no interest in helping the country.
Matthias also declared the right for himself to adjudicate the legal and financial matters between the
Hungarian State and the Holy See. In 1484 Johann Beckensloer, Archbishop of Esztergom defected from
Hungary and fled to Emperor Frederick. Matthias' response was to declare the Archbishopry of Esztergom
vacant, assigning it to the 17-year-old John of Aragon, brother of Queen Beatrix. Following the installation
of the young product of nepotism, John of Aragon died. Beatrix then pleaded with Matthias to grant the
seat to Hippolit, the merely 7-year-old Prince of Ferrara. Pope Vince VIII preferred someone else, so
Matthias struck an agreement with the Vatican and had Hippolit appointed (by now being 10years old) as
the fiscal administrator of the Esztergom Archbishopry. This resulted in the flow of church revenues to
the family of Beatrix.
Not to belabor the point, I will finish this chapter on King Matthias the Just by taking excerpts from Chapter II
of historian C.A. Macartney's book, entitled: Hungary, a short history, pp 58-59.
In the first years (of his reign), the nation was prepared to accept extraordinary financial burden to redeem
the Holy Crown, rid Northern Hungary of the Czechs and secure its defenses against the Turks. But
Matthias let himself be drawn into an ever-widening circle of campaigns in Bohemia, Austria and in pursuit of
the Bohemian Crown. He succeeded in acquiring the Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia as well as having
forced Frederick to cede him Lower Austria and Styria. The taxes he collected to finance these campaigns
left insufficient funds for the Turks, which were lined up on Hungary's southern borders. He could count
on n either the Bohemians, nor the princes of Austria. As the only source that remained was the Holy
See. Soon the Hungarians saw no profit in Matthias' wars. The Turks raided the southern borders in 1474
and 1476. Some of the Hungarian leadership conspired to set the Polish king Casimir on the throne.
The next year Casimir actually crossed the Carpathians at the head of an army. Although Casimir failed in
achieving his objective, “it cannot be said that in his lifetime Matthias was ever beloved as Stephen I
or Louis the Great had been."
Matyas/Matthias, was on his way to meet with Maximilian of Austria to sign an agreement whereby he
would have his illegitimate son, John, marry Maximilian's daughter; Matthias would give back Austria and
Styria to Maximilian and make him recognize John as Hungary' sovereign. On May 6, 1490, Matthias died
suddenly and the whole house of cards collapsed.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
91
THE 15TH CENTURY
Matthias Corvinus was called Hungary's Renaissance king. It is fascinating to consider the vigor and scope with
which the Renaissance movement in art, architecture, literature and music had taken over Europe. The era's
beginning is customarily traced to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, which, in my view, more aptly points to
the end of the Byzantine Empire rather than the beginning of the Renaissance era. The Turks gave the
cultural impetus to flee from the Bosporus toward the West, with significant stops in Italy (Leonardo da Vinci
being one of its greatest proponents), then on to Germany, France and Spain.
But there was an intermediate cultural period which nearly bypassed Hungary and that was the Gothic
period. The Goths were vandals of Germanic origin from the Baltic area who destroyed much of the
classical architecture of the Romans and exhibited new designs in architecture from the late 1300s to the
16th century. The Gothic characteristic was the pointed style, the religious edifices featuring towers, spires
and pinnacles, ornate interior and exterior and rose windows. In Hungary the style is manifested in the
(Matthias) Coronation church in the castle area of Buda, and also in the expanded segments of the
Esztergom basilica and the royal castle at Visegrad. Much of the subsequent Gothic architecture would be
destroyed by the 145 year occupation by Ottoman Turks.
As discussed in the chapter about King Matthias' rule, Renaissance came to Hungary with his Italian bride,
Beatrix. The royal palace, started in the time of King Sigismund, was now finished featuring decorations in
the colors of the Renaissance. A legion of artists, native and foreign, found constant employment
beautifying Matthias' royal residence.
The 15th century ushered in the early modern period, encouraging learning, education, exploration. In the
third decade of the century the Hussite wars (propagated by the reformer Jan Huss) broke out in Bohemia
and the Western Schism split the Roman papacy in two, eventually giving rise to the Protestant
Reformation in the upcoming 16th century. With the Hundred Year War ongoing in Western Europe, the
peasant girl turned military commander turned the tide with her victory at the Siege of Orleans in 1429.
(The legendary Joan of Arc was burned at the stake for alleged heresy just two years later.)
One of the sad results of the exploration of other continents was the establishment of the slave trade. In
1441 Portuguese navigators shipped West African slaves to Portugal. - The fate of Byzantium was saved
for a while by the Mongol conqueror Tamerlane, a descendant of Genghis Khan. But in 1451 Mohammed II
ascended the Turkish throne and sealed the fate of the Byzantine Empire.
The seemingly unstoppable advance of the Ottomans into Europe was stopped at Nandorfehervar (today's
Belgrade) in 1456 by Hungarian forces led by John Hunyadi. The Pope ordered the ringing of noontime
church bells in commemoration. Matthias Corvinus was elected king of Hungary in 1458. He established
his dominance on the backs of a mercenary army called the Black Legion, and captured Vienna, the
ultimate prize in 1485. On the other side of the Continent a struggle was brewing between the rival York
and Lancaster families of England's Edward Ill. The red and white rose badges worn by the combatants
lends its name to the Wars of the Roses between 1455 and 1485.
Christopher Columbus landed in the Americas in 1492. Born in Genoa, Italy in 1451, he had bold plans to
reach India by sailing Westward from Spain, where he found monetary backing by Ferdinand and Isabella,
co-rulers of Spain. On his first expedition on board the Santa Maria he reached the Bahamas and on
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
92
subsequent voyages he ventured into the Caribbean and the South American mainland. World maps had to
be redrawn. It fell to the Portuguese Bartolomeu Dias and later to Vasco de Gama to sail around the Cape
of Good Hope and reach India at the end of the century. DeGama established the trail known as the "Silk
trail" for spices and goods.
Other explorers of the century include John Cabot who discovered Newfoundland for England in 1497; and
Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512), an Italian who sailed for Spain, exploring the east coast of South America.
One of the fascinating success stories which changed the world is connected with the name of Johannes
Gutenberg, German printer who is credited with the invention of the movable type. His best known work
is the so-called 42- line Gutenberg Bible, printed in 1455. Although the concept of movable type was first
invented in China by Bi Sheng in the 11th century, it was Johannes Gutenberg who advanced the printing
press in Europe.
The world of art was made richer by the Italian painter Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510), and Albrecht Durer (14711528), a German whose name, translated into Hungarian (Dorer = Ajtos) gave rise to the suspicion that he
was a "magyar''. Jan van Eyck, a Dutchman, was considered one of the best painters of the 15th century
(died early 1441). The outstanding artistic figure of the century was Leonardo da Vinci (1452- 1519), painter,
sculptor and architect who is well known and recognized for his painting of "the Last Supper'' (1498) on the
refectory wall of Santa Maria delle Grazie church in Milan. He enlisted in the service of the influential Borgia
family in Florence where he worked with Michelangelo. In 1504 he completed his easel painting "Mona Lisa",
exhibited in the Louvre. As for music, the outstanding 15th century figure is Josquin Desprez (1440-1521), born in Northern France. He
was a distinguished singer in various cathedrals in Milan and Rome, then served in the court of Louis XII of
France where he composed masses and motets. One of his portraits was painted by Leonardo da Vinci.
Josquin Desprez is considered to be the greatest composer of the high Renaissance. His work also appears
to flow from the instrument we call the harpsichord, newly invented around 1450. There had been earlier
traces of a similar instrument, such as the psaltry, which was a stringed instrument in the zither family from
1397. Reference could be found to the harpsichord in the writings of a jurist in Padua who wrote that a certain
Hermann Poll claimed to have invented an instrument called the "clavicembalum" but the true inventor of this
instrument remains unidentified. Since the sounding of a musical instrument with a keyboard was already in
existence for the organ, the insight needed by the inventor was to pluck strings mechanically (not directly by
human fingers) controlled by a keyboard.
Among other notable contributions to science is the Royal Prussian (Polish) Nicolaus Copernicus (born in
1473) who stands out. It is probably too early to list him in the 15th century as a major contributor, but the
effect of his theory literally changed people's minds, including that of the Catholic Church. Copernicus was
a mathematician and astronomer who formulated a heliocentric model of the universe, placing the sun,
rather than the earth, at its center. His definitive book "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" was
published just before his death in 1543.
Among the notorious notables of the time were two families: the Medicis and the Borgias. The Cambridge
Paperback Encyclopedia gives the following description of the latter:
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
93
Borgia is an ancient family in the Spanish province of Valencia. Rodrigo Borgia (1431-1503) became Pope as
Alexander VI (and conducted an unbecoming career}. Two of his children became especially notorious.
Cesare Borgia (1476-1507} was a brilliant general and administrator serving the Papacy. He succeeded his
brother whom he may have murdered. Lucrezia Borgia (1480-1519} was married three times by her
father, the Pope. She finally became the wife of Alfonso d'Este, Duke of Ferrara. Despite her involvement in
vices, she was a patroness of learning and art.
The Medicis were a banking family which virtually ruled Florence from 1434 to 1494 without holding any official
duty. They would be overthrown by the republic in 1494, but ultimately became hereditary dukes of Florence.
The most famous Medici was Lorenzo who was a clever statesman who lived lavishly. He was also a patron
of writers, artists, scientists under whose rule Florence became one of the most beautiful and prosperous
Italian cities.
Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498} was a forerunner of the reformer Martin Luther. Born into a noble family
he entered the Dominican order in Bologna. He was a spellbinding speaker and his sermons on sinfulness
and apostasy were greatly popular. He preached against corruption in Florence, the excesses of the Medici
family and even the Papacy and Pope Borgia, in particular. Savonarola succeeded in reforming Florence by
repressing vice and frivolity. Gambling was outlawed and vanities of dress were looked upon as sinful. He
claimed the gift of prophecy for which he was ordered to appear in Rome. Savonarola disregarded the order
resulting in his excommunication and trial. Under torture he admitted some wrong, but was found guilty and
hanged and burned together with two of his Dominican disciples.
Elsewhere in the world, construction of the Chinese Forbidden City was completed in Beijing in 1420;
Machu Picchu was constructed in the 1450s in Peru; Moldavian forces under Stephen the Great defeated
the Tatars of the Golden Horde in 1470; and the Spanish Inquisition began in practice in 1481. On the
American hemisphere there was quite a bit of progress made even before the arrival of the Europeans.
The Aztec Indians of Mexico founded Tenochtitlan in 1325 as their capital, achieving architectural
brilliance in their building technique. Their religion, however, required many human sacrifices. The Maya
Indians in Central America also reached a high standard of architecture by 700 A.D. but were in decline by
the 15th century. The Inca Indians of Peru established an empire in the Andes mountains and numbered
about 7 million people. They, too, were fine architects and road-builders.
Bridging the 14th and 15th centuries in Eastern Europe was the Jagiellon dynasty of Poland.
VLADISLAUS II (II. Ulaszlo, 1490-1516}
Son of Polish King Casimir IV of the Jagiellon dynasty, and his wife Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of Albert
who at one time bore the crowned title to the Hungarian throne as well. Vladislaus, born in 1456, was
only 15 when he was confronted by the Bohemian wars, a conflict over the Bohemian throne, and he
could not control the situation. Finally, his advisers worked out a "deal" in the Peace of Olomouc, which
allowed both Vladislaus and Matthias Corvinus to use the royal title by splitting the countries among them.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
94
The peace treaty also stipulated that in case of Matthias' death Vladislaus would pay 400,000 gulden for
regaining power over the whole of Bohemia. However, when Vladislaus became Hungary's king he did not
make such a payment.
Chaos was nearly complete in Hungary when Matthias died. The nobility would not recognize his
illegitimate son John, so the king-makers discovered a Hungarian line in Vladislaus' mother as the
granddaughter of King Sigismund. It is to his credit, though, that Vladislaus moved to Hungary
immediately after his coronation and he lived there for the rest of his life.
Vladislaus was married three times. First, in 1476 when he was 20 years old, he married Barbara of
Brandenburg. After she died, he married Beatrix, the widow of Matthias. After her death Vladislaus
married the 18 year old Anne of Foix-Candale. By this time the king was 46 years old, but managed to
have two surviving legitimate children, a daughter named Anne and a boy who would be known as Louis II
of Hungary. The Queen died four years after giving a difficult birth to her son, Louis. Weighed down by
tragedy, Vladislaus was a depressed man, nearly neglecting his official duties. Because he answered any
request with the Polish "dobre", or "Yes", he would be called Dobzse Laszlo by all who served him.
Vladislaus died shortly after his 60th birthday in March of 1516 in Buda. He had made certain that his son
by his third wife Anne, would be his successor. He had the boy crowned and so, when Vladislaus died, the
10-year-old boy would step into his place as Louis II.
Predictably, royal power declined under Vladislaus in favour of the Hungarian magnates. The upper
classes, to their detriment and shame, used their power to curtail whatever freedoms the peasants had.
This would result in the inevitable revolution led by Gyorgy Dozsa.
The Dozsa revolt
We had mentioned above that the king's weak and reluctant control of the nobility eventually resulted in
more suffering for the peasant class, further reducing their economic and social position. The leader of a
peasant revolt stemming from the bitterness of this class was a soldier of fortune, - some accounts claim
that he was a nobleman from Transylvania, - by the name of Gyorgy Ddzsa. He was born in today's
Romania in 1470 and died of execution in 1514. In the course of history he became a hero of the peasant
class, especially during the post-WWII Communist era. When NYNEX, the company I had worked for
before retirement, transferred me to Hungary in 1990-92, my office was situated on Gyorgy Dozsa Avenue in
Budapest, opposite the base of the statue of Joseph Stalin which was destroyed in the 1956 Hungarian
revolution.
Dozsa was a recognized fighter against the Ottoman Empire. When the Holy See authorized the Hungarian
chancellor, Tamas Bakocz, to launch a crusade against the Turks, Bakocz appointed Dozsa to organize the
movement, partially financed by the Vatican. Dozsa went to work and within a few weeks he was able to
put together an "army" of some 100,000 fighters they called "kuruc". The army consisted of adventureseekers mostly from the lower strata of society, including peasants, students and priests and friars eager
to beat up on the Turks. This rag-tag army, however, was left without provisions for food and clothing
while the decision to proceed with the crusade lingered. As harvest-time approached, their landlords
demanded that they return to the fields to work which they refused to do. Instead, all the wrong-doings of
the landed gentry came to the surface and the rebellious peasants turned with vengeance against the
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.
95
landlords. Hundreds of manor houses and castles were burned and many gentry killed by cruel methods.
Dozsa lost control of his army.
The Pope got cold feet and revoked his bull to launch a crusade. King Vladislaus II issued a proclamation
commanding the peasantry to return to their homes or face death. Dozsa's army managed to take the city
of Arad and Vilagos (where the 1848 revolution would sadly end), but in the end the armies of John Zapolya
and Istvan Bathory (names of noble men in Hungarian history) subdued the revolt, capturing Dozsa and
executing him in a horrible manner by forcing him to sit on a smoldering iron throne with a hot crown on his
head. His followers, including his brother, were cut up in full view of Dozsa. All together some 70,000
peasants were tortured and they would never participate as a class against the invasion of the Turks. The
newly formed Diet (Parliament) under Istvan Werboczy brought new and harsher laws against the peasantry
while enhancing the status of the nobility. The verbiage of the dictum reflects the bitterness between
Hungarian classes as the Diet condemned the peasantry to "real and perpetual servitude."
Hungary was sadly and permanently divided by these events and when the 1526 Turkish victory at Mohacs
killed off the best of its nobles on the battlefield, the future of Hungary would be in doubt until the 1848
revolution which resulted in the abolition of serfdom.
LOUIS II (II. Lajos, 1516-1526)
Upon the death of his father, Louis II ascended the throne of Hungary and subsequently was crowned king
of Bohemia and Croatia as well. His sister, Anne, who was older, was married in 1515 to Archduke
Ferdinand, the future emperor Ferdinand of Austria, a grandson of Emperor Maximilian I. The reason I
brought this up is historically significant for Hungary, since with the eventual death of Louis II, royal
succession would percolate through her to the Habsburgs.
Louis was raised by his legal guardian and cousin, George, Margrave of Brandenberg-Ansbach. In 1515,
the same year that his sister married, the nine-year-old Louis was married to Mary of Austria,
granddaughter of Emperor Maximilian I.
When Louis stepped up to the throne, Suleiman, the Turkish sultan sent an ambassador to Buda Castle to
collect a previously agreed-to annual tribute. Louis refused to pay it. Instead, he had the ambassador
executed and his head sent to the Sultan while hoping that the Papal States and Charles V, Holy Roman
Emperor, would back him up. This did not happen. Hungary's coffers were empty, his military underpaid
or not paid at all, fortresses in disrepair, with no help from his neighbors, the country was defenseless
when Suleiman appeared on the plains of Mohacs in southern Hungary on August 29, 1526.
Copyright 2013. Jules S. Vallay. All rights reserved.