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The London Conference 1. 1933, London Conference, 66 nations came together to try to develop a worldwide solution to the Great Depression. – – Unit 10: Ch. 3434-36 FDR at first agreed to send Sec. of State Hull, but withdrew from agreement & scolded other nations for trying to stabilize currencies. Result: conference accomplished nothing, & strengthened US isolationism & FDR free to try inflating US currency. Freedom for/from Filipinos and Recognition for the Russians World War II – Beginnings of Cold War 1. 2. 3. US eager to do away w/ their liabilities in Philippines. US sugar producers wanted to get rid of Filipino competition. 1934, TydingsTydings-McDuffie Act, Philippines independence after 12 yrs of economic & political tutelage, in 1946 – naval bases kept. While US crept further into isolationism, militarists in Japan saw opportunity to take Pacific w/o U.S. interference or 4. Becoming a Good Neighbor Storm--Cellar Isolationism Storm 1. 1. U.S. wanted to be a “good neighbor” to Latin America, showing US was content as a regional power, not a world one. 1933, FDR renounced armed intervention in Latin America at the Seventh PanPan-American Conference in Montevideo, Uruguay. U.S. removed troops from Haiti & Panama, but when Mexican forces seized US oil properties, FDR was urged to take drastic action. 2. 3. – 1. – 2. 3. FDR resisted, worked out peaceful deal & improved U.S. image in L. America. IV. Secretary Hull’s Reciprocal Trade Agreement Sec. of State Hull believed trade was a 22-way street, & he had a part in the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act, 1934, which activated lowlow-tariff policies while aiming at relief & recovery by boosting US trade. After WWI, many dictatorships sprang up; Stalin of the USSR, Mussolini of Italy, & Hitler of Germany. 4. 5. Hitler most dangerous; he was a great orator & persuader who led German people to believe his “big lie,” making them think that he could lead the country back to greatness & out of this time of poverty and depression. 1936, Hitler & Mussolini allied themselves in the RomeRome-Berlin Axis. Japan slowly gained strength, refusing to cooperate w/ the world & ended the Washington Naval Treaty in 1934 & walked out of the London Conference & quickly began arming itself. 1935, Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, conquered it, & League of Nations failed to take effective action against the aggressors. US continued isolationism, believing that everything would stay good if the U.S. wasn’t drawn into any international embroilments. 1 Congress Legislates Neutrality 1. 1. Who is the woman? 2. What does the artist mean by “civilization”? 3. Calls them for what? 4. What is the message in this poster? 1934, Nye Committee investigated whether or not munitions manufacturers existed for purpose of money & profits off of wars, press blamed them for dragging US into WWI. Congress passed Neutrality Acts, 19351935-37; president proclaimed the existence of a foreign war, restrictions would automatically go into effect: no American could legally sail on a belligerent ship or sell or transport munitions to a belligerent, or make loans to a belligerent. 2. – The flaw with these acts was World War II would prove to be different. America Dooms Loyalist Spain 1. Spanish Civil War (1936(1936-39), rebels led by fascist Gen. Franco rose up against the leftistleftist-leaning republican gov’t. – – U.S. put an embargo on both the loyalist gov’t, supported by USSR, & the rebels, which were aided by Hitler & Mussolini. U.S. just stood by while Franco smothered the democratic gov’t. US also failed to build up its fleet, most believed that huge fleets led to huge wars. Appeasing Japan and Germany 1. 1937, Japan invaded China, but FDR didn’t call it “a war,” thus China could still get arms from U.S., & in Chicago, FDR chastised Japan, calling for an economic “quarantine.” – – 2. Dec. 1937, Japanese bombed & sank US gunboat, the Panay, but made the necessary apologies, “saving” US from entering war. Hitler grew bolder after being allowed to introduce mandatory military service, take over the Rhineland, persecute & exterminate about six million Jews, & occupy Austria— Austria—all because the European powers were appeasing him. 3. – 4. Quarantine Speech asked US to stay neutral but morally side against fascist. However, this speech angered many isolationists, and FDR backed down. They naively hoped that each conquest of Germany would be the last. Hitler didn’t stop, at the September 1938 Munich Conference, the Allies agreed to let Hitler have the Sudentenland of Czechoslovakia, but 6 mo. later, in 1939, Hitler took over all Hitler’s Belligerency and U.S. Neutrality 1. On August 23, 1939, the U.S.S.R. shocked the world by signing a nonaggression treaty with Germany. – – 2. Sept. 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland, so France & Britain declared war against Germany, but America refused to enter the war, its citizens not wanting to be “suckers” again. – 3. Germany could now engulf Europe in war, w/o having to worry about fighting a twotwo-front war. The nonaggression pact opened the door to Poland. Americans were anti anti--Hitler and anti anti--Nazi and wanted Britain and France to win, but they would not permit themselves to be dragged into fighting. European powers needed US supplies, but Neutrality Acts forbade sale of arms to nations in war, so new Neutrality Act of 1939 allowed European nations to buy war materials, but only on a “cash“cash-and and--carry” basis, which meant Europeans had to provide their own ships & pay in cash. British & French controlled the seas, Germans couldn’t buy arms from US. 2 1. Who is the lady? 2. What is the story she is reading about? 3. What are the reactions of the kids? 4. What is the attitude of the mother? The Fall of France 1. “The Phony War,”a lull in the war after Poland fell, while Hitler positioned his forces to attack France (so that men could move) except when USSR attacked & conquered Finland, despite $30 million from the U.S. (for nonmilitary reasons). 2. 1940, the “phony war” ended when Hitler overran Denmark, Norway, Netherlands and Belgium & then struck a paralyzing blow toward France, which was forced to surrender by late June 1940. B. The fall of France was shocking, now, only Britain stood between Hitler & the world: if England lost, Hitler would have all of Europe in which to operate, and he might take over the Americas as well. 1. Finally, FDR called for the nation to massively build up its armed forces, with expenses totaling more than $37 m. FDR had Congress pass the first peacetime draft in U.S. history on September 6, 1940. – Bolstering Britain with the Destroyer Deal (1940) 1. With only Britain fighting Germany, FDR had to decide whether to remain totally neutral or to help Britain. – 2. 3. – – FDR Shatters the TwoTwo-Term Tradition (1940) 1. 1940, Wendell L. Willkie, a colorful & magnetic newcomer went from a nobody to a candidate in a matter of weeks to Battle of Britain: August 1940, Hitler launched air attacks against Britain & prepared an invasion scheduled to start a month later, but the tenacious defense of the British Royal Air Force stopped him. Committee to Defend America were those who supported helping Britain by Aiding the Allies, while isolationist (including Charles A. Lindbergh) were in the America First Committee, & both groups campaigned and advertised for their respective positions. Britain was in dire need of destroyers, & on Sept. 2, 1940, FDR boldly moved to transfer 50 oldold-model, four four--funnel destroyers left over from WWI, & in return, the British promised to give the U.S. eight valuable defensive base sites stretching from Newfoundland to South America. 1.2 million troops and 800,000 reserves would be trained. become the Republican against Democrat FDR, who waited until the last moment to challenge the twotwo-term tradition. – Democrats felt FDR was the only man qualified to be president, especially in so grave of a situation as was going on. 2. Willkie & FDR weren’t really different in the realm of foreign affairs, but Willkie hit hard with his attacks on the third term. 3. Still, FDR won because voters felt that, should war come, FDR was the best man to lead America. These would stay in American ownership for 99 years. Obviously, this caused controversy, but FDR felt US had to stop 3 Congress Passes the Landmark LendLend-Lease Law 1. Hitler’s Assault on the USSR Spawns the Atlantic Charter Britain was running out of money, but FDR didn’t want the hassles that came w/ calling back debts, so he came up w/ 1. June 22, 1941, Hitler attacked USSR, because neither Stalin nor Hitler had trusted each other, & both had been plotting to double--cross each other. double the lendlend-lease program, the arms & ships, etc. the U.S. lent to nations would be returned when they were no longer needed. – – Senator Taft retorted that in this case the U.S. wouldn’t want them back. 2. The lendlend-lease bill was argued over heatedly in Congress, 2. The Atlantic Conference was held in August 1941, and the result was the eighteight-point Atlantic Charter, which was suggestive of Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Main points included… but it passed, & by war’s end, US sent about $50 billion worth of arms & equipment. – – The lend lend--lease act was the abandonment of the neutrality policy by the US, and Hitler recognized this. – – – Before, German submarines had avoided attacking U.S. ships, but after the passage, they started to fire upon U.S. ships as well, such as 1. Who is the Charter going to effect? 2. How do you know? Hitler assumed his invincible troops would crush the inferior Soviet soldiers, but the valor of the Red army, U.S. aid to the U.S.S.R. (through lendlend-lease), and an early and bitter winter stranded the German force at Moscow and shifted the tide against Germany. There would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes of the natives. The charter also affirmed the right of self self--determination. It declared disarmament and a peace of security, as well as a new League of Nations. U.S. Destroyers and Hitler’s UU-Boats Clash 1. 2. 3. To ensure arms reached Britain, FDR finally agreed to a convoy to escort them, but only to Iceland, Britain would take over from there. U.S. destroyers like the Greer, Kearny, & Reuben James were attacked by the Germans. By midmid-November 1941, Congress annulled Neutrality Act of 1939. Surprise Assault at Pearl Harbor 1. 2. 3. Japan was still at war w/ China, but when US suddenly imposed embargoes on key supplies on Japan in 1940, the imperialistic nation had no choice, either back off of China or attack the U.S. US broke Japanese code & knew war was imminent, but U.S. could not attack, & most Americans thought Japanese would attack British Malaya or Philippines. Dec. 7, 1941, Japanese suddenly attacked the naval base 4 America’s Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent 1. Up until the day of the Pearl Harbor attack, most Americans still wanted to stay out of war, but afterwards the event sparked such passion that it completely infuriated Americans into wanting to go to war. This had been long in coming, as the U.S. had wanted to stay out of war, but had still supported Britain more and more, and the U.S. had been against the Japanese aggression but had failed to take a firm stand on either side. Finally, people decided that appeasement didn’t work against “iron wolves,” and that only full war was needed to keep the world safe for democracy and against anarchy and 2. 3. dictatorship. Ch. 35: America in World War II The Allies Trade Space for Time 1. After Japan attacked at Pearl Harbor, millions of infuriated The Shock of War 1. After the attack at Pearl Harbor, national unity was strong. Most of America’s ethnic groups assimilated even faster due to WWII, since in the decades before the war, few immigrants had been allowed into America. 2. Americans instantly changed views from isolationist to avenger. 2. US, led by FDR, resisted such pressures, instead taking a – “get Germany first” approach to the war, for if Germany were to defeat Britain before the Allies could beat Japan, there – would be no stopping Hitler and his men. – check. 3. – But, just enough troops would be sent to fight Japan to keep it in 3. US had hardship of preparing for war, due to the isolation of the preceding decades, & the test would be whether or not it could mobilize quickly enough to stop Germany & make the 4. Pacific coast, 110k JapaneseJapanese-Americans were taken from their homes & herded into internment camps where their properties & freedoms were taken away. 1944 case of Korematsu v. U.S. affirmed the constitutionality of these camps. It took 40+ years before U.S. admitted fault & made $20k reparation payments to camp survivors. With the war, many New Deal programs were wiped out, such as the CCC, the WPA, and the NYA. WWII was no idealistic crusade, as most Americans didn’t even 5 Building the War Machine Manpower and Womanpower 1. 1. Massive military orders (over $100 billion in 1942 alone) ended the Great Depression by creating demand for jobs and production. Shipbuilder Henry J. Kaiser was dubbed “Sir Launchalot” because his methods of ship assembly churned out one ship every 14 days! War Production Board halted manufacture of nonessential items & when the Japanese seized rubber supplies in British Malaya & the Dutch East Indies, U.S. imposed a national speed limit & gasoline rationing to save tires and many essential goods were rationed. Farmers grew more food, but prices soared— soared— problem finally solved by the regulation of prices by the Office of Price Administration. Labor unions pledged not to strike during the war, but some did. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wartime Migrations 1. 2. 2. 3. – 4. The war forced many people to move to new places. FDR used the war as an excuse to pump money into the stagnant South to revitalize it, helping to start the “Sunbelt.” – 3. Still, some 1.6 million blacks left the South, & explosive tensions developed over black housing, employment, and segregation facilities. Philip Randolph, leader of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, threatened a “Negro March to Washington” in 1941 to get better rights & treatment. FDR established the Fair Employment Practices Commission to discourage racism & oppression in the workplace, & while Blacks in the army still suffered discrimination, they still used the war as a rallying cry against dictators abroad & racism at home— home —overall gaining power & strength. 4. – The armed forces had nearly 15 million men and 216,000 women, & some of these “women in arms” included the WAACS (Army), the WAVES (Navy), and SPARS (Coast Guard). Because of the national draft there weren’t enough workers, so the Bracero Program brought Mexican workers to America as resident workers. With the men in the military, women took up jobs in the workplace, symbolized by “Rosie the Riveter,” and upon war’s end, many did not return to their homes as in World War I. 1944, mechanical cotton picker made the need for muscle nonexistent, so blacks could leave since they lost their jobs. – 5. They left the South and took up residence in urban areas. Native Americans also left their reservations during the war, finding work in the cities or joining the army. – 6. The female revolution into the work force was not as great as commonly believed. At the end of war, 2/3 of women did return home; the servicemen who came home to them helped produce a baby boom that is still being felt today. Some 25,000 Native Americans were in the army, and the Navajo and Comanches were “code talkers,” relaying military orders in the own language— language—a “code” that was never broken by the Axis Powers. Such sudden “rubbing of the races” did spark riots and cause tension, such as the 1943 attack on some Mexican--American navy men in Los Angeles and the Mexican Detroit race riot (occurring in the same year) that killed 25 blacks and 9 whites. Membership to the NAACP passed the half half--million mark, & a new organization, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), was founded in 1942. 6 Holding the Home Front 1. US only country to emerge after the war relatively unscathed, and in fact, it was much better off after the war than before. – – 2. The gross national product more than doubled, as did corporate profits. In fact, when the war ended and price controls were lifted, inflation shot up. Despite all of the New Deal programs, it was the plethora of spending during WWII that lifted America from its Great Depression. – – The wartime bill amounted to more than $330 billion billion— —more than the combined costs of all the previous American wars together. While income tax was expanded to make four times as many people pay as before, most of the payments were borrowed, making the national debt soar from $49 billion to $259 billion (the war had cost as much as $10 million per hour at one point). The Rising Sun in the Pacific 1. Japan conquered over 1 million sq. miles of the Pacific Rim; conquering Guam, Wake, the Philippines, Hong Kong, British Malaya, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, and even pushing into China. U.S. General Douglas MacArthur had to sneak out of the Philippines, & vowed to return to liberate the islands; he went to Australia. After the fighters in the Philippines surrendered, they were forced to make the infamous 8585-mile Bataan death march. 2. 3. – Japan’s High Tide at Midway Japan stopped in Coral Sea by US & Australia. World’s 1st naval battle where ships never saw one another. And, Japanese at Midway Island, were forced back by US Adm. Nimitz from 6/36/3-6, 1942. 1. – American Leapfrogging Toward Tokyo 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. US won at Guadalcanal in Aug. 1942 & New Guinea by August 1944. By island hopping, U.S. retook the Aleutian Islands in August of 1943, & in November 1943, “bloody Tarawa” and Makin, members of the Gilbert Islands, fell to the Allies. US sailors shelled the beachheads, U.S. Marines stormed ashore, & US bombers attacked the Japanese, such as Lt. Robert J. Albert who piloted a BB-24 “Liberator” on 36 missions including his final run before returning home. That mission was a record 18 hr & 25 min. strike that he piloted, even though his tour of duty was complete, just so his men would not fly behind a rookie pilot. In January and February of 1944, the Marshall Islands fell to the U.S. The assault on the Marianas (including Guam) began on June 19, 1944, & with superior planes such as the “Hellcat” fighter and May 6, 1942, the island fortress of Corregidor, in Manila Harbor, surrendered. Midway proved to be the turning point that stopped Japanese The Allied Halting of Hitler US at 1st had trouble against Germany, UU-boats proved very effective, but breaking the Germans’ “enigma” code helped pinpoint those subs better. 1. – 2. May 1942, British launched a massive raid on Cologne, France, and in August, the U.S. air corps joined them. – 3. After war’s end the true threat of the German submarines was known, Hitler had been about to unleash a new UU-boat that could remain underwater indefinitely and cruise at 17 knots underwater. Germans, led by the “Desert Fox” Marshall Edwin Rommel, drove to Egypt, dangerously close to the Suez Canal, but late in October 1942, British General Bernard Montgomery defeated him at El Alamein, west of Cairo. On the Soviet front, Russians launched a new, blistering counteroffensive, regaining about 2/3 of the land they had lost before a year later. 7 A Second Front from North Africa to Rome 5. The Allies finally took Rome on June 4, 1944, and it wasn’t until May 2, 1945, that Axis troops in Italy finally surrendered. Though long and tiring, the Italian invasion did open up Europe, divert some of Hitler’s men from the Soviet front, and helping cause Italy to fall. 2nd 1. Soviets begged Allies to open a front against Hitler, Soviet forces fighting alone, & US was eager to comply, but the British, remembering WWI, were reluctant. – 2. No frontal European assault, British devised invasion thru N. Africa, so Allies could cut Hitler’s forces thru “soft underbelly” of the Mediterranean Sea. A secret attack was coordinated & executed by Eisenhower but upon facing the German soldiers, US set back at Kasserine Pass. – 3. This soft underbelly campaign wasn’t really successful, as the underbelly wasn’t as soft as Churchill had guessed, but important lessons were learned. Casablanca Conference, FDR & Churchill agreed on “unconditional surrender.” Allies found bitter resistance in Italy, but Sicily finally fell Aug. 1943. 4. – 6. D-Day: June 6, 1944 1. Tehran Conference, the Big Three (FDR, Churchill, & Stalin) met & agreed that the Soviets & Allies would launch simultaneous attacks. Allies began plans for a gigantic crosscross-channel invasion, & command of the whole operation was entrusted to Gen. Eisenhower. 2. – 3. Meanwhile, MacArthur received a fake army to use as a ruse to Germany. Point of attack was French Normandy, and on June 6, 1944, D-Day began began— —the amphibious assault on Normandy. After heavy resistance, Allied troops, some led by General George S. Patton, finally clawed their way onto land, across the Italian dictator Mussolini was deposed, and a new government was set up. FDR: The FourthFourth-Termite of 1944 The Last Days of Hitler 1. 1. Republicans nominated Dewey, a young, liberal governor of NY, & paired him with isolationist John W. Bricker of Ohio. FDR was Democratic lock, but because of his age, the vice presidential candidate was carefully chosen to be Harry S. Truman. 2. Roosevelt Defeats Dewey 1. Dewey went on a rampaging campaign offensive while FDR, stuck with WWII problems, could not go out much. – 2. 3. The new Political Action Committee of the CIO contributed considerable money. It was organized to get around the law banning direct use of union funds for political purposes. FDR stomped Dewey, 432 to 99, the 4th term issue wasn’t even that big of a deal, since the precedent had already been broken three years before. FDR won because the war was going well, and because people wanted to stick with him. On the retreat and losing, Hitler concentrated his forces on Dec. 16, 1944, starting the Battle of “the Bulge.” He nearly succeeded, but the 1010-day penetration was finally stopped by the 101st Airborne Division that had stood firm at the vital bastion of Bastogne, which was commanded by Brigadier General A.C. McAuliffe. March 1945, US reached the Rhine River of Germany, & then pushed toward the river Elbe, and from there, joining Soviet troops, they marched toward Berlin. Upon entering Germany, the Allies were horrified to find the concentration camps where millions of Jews and other “undesirables” had been slaughtered in attempted genocide. 2. 3. – 4. 5. Adolph Hitler, committed suicide in his bunker on April 30, 1945. Meanwhile, in America, FDR had died from a massive cerebral hemorrhage on April 12, 1945. May 7, 1945 was the date of the official German surrender, and the 8 The Atomic Bombs 1. At the Potsdam Conference, the Allies issued an ultimatum: surrender or be destroyed. 1st atomic bomb had been tested on July 16, 1945, near Alamogordo, New Mexico, & when Japan refused to surrender, American dropped AA-bombs onto Hiroshima (on August 6, 1945), killing 73k and Nagasaki (on August 9, 1945), killing 37.5k. 200k by end of year. On August 8, 1945, Soviets declared war on Japan, just as promised, & 2 days later, August 10, Japan sued for peace on one condition: that the Emperor Hirohito be allowed to remain on the Japanese throne. 2. 3. – 4. Despite the “unconditional surrender” clause, the Allies accepted. The formal end came on September 2, 1945, on the battleship U.S.S. Missouri where Hirohito surrendered to General MacArthur. Before After 9 Enola Gay • Exploded 580 meters above a hospital • Air temperature exceeded 1 million degrees Celsius • 1 second after detonation the diameter of the fire ball was 280 meters. Little Man 1st Bomb Fat Man 2nd Bomb Before Hiroshima After 10 Nagasaki Before The Allies Triumphant 1. 2. 3. After 4. America suffered 1 million casualties, but the number killed by disease and infections was very low thanks to new miracle drugs like penicillin. But otherwise the U.S. had suffered little losses (two Japanese attacks on California and Oregon that were rather harmless). This was America’s bestbest-fought war, despite the fact that the U.S. began preparing later than usual. The success was partly thanks to the excellent U.S. generals and admirals, and the leaders. Industry also rose to the challenge, putting out a phenomenal amount of goods, proving wrong Hermann Goering, a Nazi leader who had scorned America’s lack of manufacturing skills. 11 Chapter 36 - The Cold War Begins 4. To forestall an economic downturn, gov’t sold war factories & other gov’t installations to private businesses cheaply. Employment Act, 1946, gov’t policy to “promote maximum employment, production, & purchasing power,” & created Council of Economic Advisors to provide president w/ data to make policy a reality. Postwar Economic Anxieties 1. US cheered the end of WWII in 1945, but many worried the U.S. would sink back into another Great Depression. – 2. Inflation shot up w/ release of price controls while GNP sank, & labor strikes swept the nation. Congress passed TaftTaft-Hartley Act, outlawed “closed” shops (closed to nonnon-union members), made unions liable for damages that resulted from jurisdictional disputes among themselves, & required union leaders take nonnon-communist oaths. Opposite of Wagner Act. Labor tried to organize in South & West w/ “Operation Dixie,” but this proved frustrating & unsuccessful. 3. – Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, 1944, the GI Bill of Rights, which allowed all servicemen to have free college education once they returned from the war. The Long Economic Boom, 19501950-1970 1. In late 40s & into 60s, economy began to boom, & folks who had felt the sting of the G.D. now wanted to bathe in the new prosperity. – 2. Middle class more than doubled while people now wanted two cars in every garage; over 90% of American families owned a television. Women also reaped the benefits of the postwar economy, growing in US work force while giving up their former roles as housewives. Even though this new affluence did not touch everyone, it did 3. The Roots of Postwar Prosperity The Smiling Sunbelt 1. 1. However, much of the prosperity of the 50s and 60s rested on colossal military projects. – 2. 3. With so many people on the move, families were being strained. Combined with the baby boom, this explained the success of Dr. Benjamin Spock’s The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care. Care. Immigration also led to the growth of a 1515-state region in the southern half of the U.S. known as the Sunbelt, which dramatically increased in population. 1950s, CA overtook NY as most populous. Immigrants came to the Sunbelt for more opportunities, such as in CA’s electronics industry & aerospace complexes of TX & FL. Massive appropriations for Korean War, defense spending, industries like aerospace, plastics, & electronics, & research & development all were such projects. Cheap energy paralleled popularity of automobiles, & spidery grids of electrical cables carried power of oil, gas, coal, & falling water into homes and factories alike. Workers upped their productivity tremendously, as did farmers, due to new technology in fertilizers, etc. In fact, the farming population shrank while production soared. 2. 3. – – Federal dollars poured into the Sunbelt (some $125 million), & political power grew there as well, ever since 1964, every U.S. president has come from that region. Sunbelters were redrawing the political map, taking economic & political power out of the North and Northeast. 12 Rush to the Suburbs Truman: the “Gutty” Man from Missouri 1. 1. Whites in cities fled to suburbs, encouraged by federal agencies such as the FHA & the VA, whose loan guarantees made it cheaper to live in the suburbs than in cramped city apartments Innovators like Levitt brothers, w/ their monotonous but cheap housing plans, built K’s of houses in projects like Levittown, & “White flight” left cities full of the poor & the AfricanAfricanAmericans. 2. – Agencies aggravated this, often refusing to make loans to Blacks due to the “risk factor” involved with this. The Postwar Baby Boom 1. 2. 3. After the war, many soldiers returned got married and had babies, creating a “Baby Boom”, 50 million. As the children grew up, they put strains on markets, such as manufacturers of baby products, teenage clothing designers in 60s, & job market in 70s & 80s. Critics of FDR charged he’d soldout China’s Chiang Kai Kai--shek, while supporters claimed USSR could have taken more of China but the Yalta agreements had actually limited the Soviet Union. Truman, came to power after FDR died. – – – 2. Even if he was small on the small things, he was big on the big things, taking responsibility very seriously & working very hard. Yalta: Bargain or Betrayal? 1. Final conference of Big 3 had taken place at Yalta in Feb. 1945, where Stalin pledged Poland should have a representative gov’t w/ free elections, as would Bulgaria & Romania. But, Stalin lied. Yalta, USSR agreed to attack Japan 3 mo. after fall of 2. Shaping the Postwar World 1. US did manage to est. structures part of FDR’s open world. – The United States and the Soviet Union 1. W/ US & USSR only world superpowers after WWII, trouble seemed imminent; 1. 2. 3. 2. 3. US & Britain delayed opening up a 2nd front during WWII; US & Britain had frozen USSR out of developing nuclear arms; US had w/drawn lendlend-lease program from USSR, 1945, & spurned Moscow’s plea for a $6 b reconstructive loan while approving a similar loan to Berlin. Stalin wanted a protective sphere around western Russian from W. Europe, & that meant taking nations like Poland under its control. US & USSR were recent newcomers to world stage, but both were very advanced & had been isolationist before 20th century, now they are in a political starestare-down that turns into 1st president in a long time w/o a college education, at 1st approached his position with humility, but he evolved into a confident, cocky politician. Cabinet made up of “Missouri gang,” Truman’s friends from time as Senator. Often, Truman would stick to a wrong decision just to prove his decisiveness and power of command. 2. The United Nations opened on April 25, 1945. – – 3. 4. Meeting at Bretton Woods, NH, 1944, Western Allies est. International Monetary Fund (IMF) to encourage world trade by regulating currency exchange rates. Charter similar to League of Nations, formed a Security Council with five permanent powers (China, U.S.S.R., Britain, France, and U.S.A.) that had veto powers, and was headquartered in New York City. Senate overwhelmingly approved the U.N. by a vote of 89 to 2. UN kept peace in Kashmir & other trouble spots, created the new Jewish state of Israel, formed such groups as U.N. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Org., Food and Agricultural Org., & World Health Org., bringing benefits to people all over the globe. U.S. delegate Baruch called in 1946 for a UN agency free from the great power veto that could investigate all nuclear facilities & weapons, USSR rejected the proposal, since it didn’t want to give up its veto power & was opposed to 13 The Problem of Germany The Cold War Congeals 1. 1. Nuremberg Trials, 4545-46 punished 22 top culprits of Holocaust. US knew that an economically healthy Germany was indispensable to the recovery of all of Europe, but Russia, fearing another blitzkrieg, wanted huge reparations from Germany. Germany was divided into 4 occupational zones controlled by the Allied Powers, but as the U.S. began proposing the idea of a united Germany, & as Western nations prevented Stalin from getting his reparations from their parts of Germany, it became obvious that Germany would remain indefinitely divided. 2. 3. – – 1946, Stalin used his troops to aid a rebel movement in Iran, Truman protested, & Soviets backed down. Containment policy, stop USSR expansion to halt Communist power. March 12, 1947, the Truman Doctrine, containment policy be put into action: $400 m to help Greece & Turkey from falling under communist power. 2. 3. – 4. Marshall Plan Sec. of State Marshall, implemented a recovery effort to rebuild W. Europe & make prosperous in no time. – – 1948, Berlin Blockade, USSR thought this would starve the Allies out, since Berlin itself was divided into four zones as well. Allies organized the Berlin Airlift to feed Berlin, and in May 1949, the Soviets stopped their blockade of Berlin. – 5. Truman recognized Israel, May 14, 1948, despite Arab opposition and despite those same Arabs controlled oil supplies in the Middle East. 4. America Begins to Rearm 1. 2. 3. 1947 National Security Act created Dept. of Defense, housed in Pentagon & headed by Sec. of Defense, under which served civilian secretaries of army, navy, & air force. National Security Act also formed the National Security Council to advise the president on security matters & CIA to coordinate the gov’t’s foreign factfact-gathering (spying). “Voice of America,” radio broadcast, 1948, while Congress resurrected military draft (Selective Service System), which redefined many young people’s career choices & persuaded them to go to college. Doctrine said US would aid any power fighting Communist aggression, an idea later criticized, US often gave money to dictators “fighting communism.” This helped in the forming of the European Community (EC). Plan sent $12.5 b over 4 ys to 16 nations to aid in recovery, & at 1st, Congress didn’t want to comply, especially on top of $2 b US already giving to European relief as part of United Nations Relief & Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA). Soviet--sponsored coup toppled gov’t of Czech & awakened Congress. Soviet 1948, US joined North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) w/ Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, & Luxembourg, despite the U.S.’s policy of traditionally not involving itself in entangling alliances. – – In response, the U.S.S.R. formed the Warsaw Pact, its own alliance system. NATO’s membership grew to fourteen with the 1952 admissions of Greece and Turkey, and then to 15 when West Germany joined in 1955. Reconstruction and Revolution in Asia 1. Gen. MacArthur headed reconstruction in Japan and tried the top Japanese war criminals. He dictated a constitution that was adopted in 1946, and democratized Japan. In China, the communist forces, led by Mao Zedong, defeated the nationalist forces, led by Chiang KaiKai-shek, who fled to island of Formosa (Taiwan) in 1949. 2. – – 1/4 of the world population (500m people) plunged under Communist rule. Critics of Truman criticized him for not supporting nationalists enough, 14 3. Sept. of 1949, Truman announced that the Soviets had bomb—3 years before experts exploded their 1st atomic bomb— thought it was possible, thus eliminating the U.S. monopoly on nuclear weapons. – U.S. exploded hydrogen bomb in 1952, and Soviets did so a year later; thus began the arms race of the Cold War. Ferreting Out Alleged Communists 1. Loyalty Review Board, which investigated more than 3 million federal employees for communist loyalties. – 2. They were convicted, sent to prison, and their conviction was upheld by the 1951 case Dennis v. United States. The Korean Volcano Erupts (1950) 1. When Russian and American forces withdrew from Korea, they had left the place full of weapons and with rival regimes (communist North and democratic South). Then, on June 25, 1950, North Korean forces suddenly invaded South Korean, taking the South Koreans by surprise and pushing them dangerously south toward Pusan. 2. – 3. Truman sprang to action, remembering that the League of Nations had failed from inactivity, and ordered U.S. military spending to be quadrupled, as desired by the National Security Council Memorandum Number 68, or NSCNSC-68. Truman also used a Soviet absence from the U.N. to label North Korea as an aggressor and send U.N. troops to fight against the aggressors. – – The attorney general said 90 organizations were potentially not loyal to the U.S., and none was given the opportunity to defend itself. In 1949, 11 communists were brought to a New York jury for violating the Smith Act of 1940, which had been the first peacetime antianti-sedition law since 1798. – 3. House of Rep., 1938, established the Committee on UnUn-American Activities (“HUAC”) to investigate “subversion,” & in 1948, Richard M. Nixon prosecuted Alger Hiss. 4. February 1950, Joseph R. McCarthy began charging that there were unknown communists in the State Department. – He couldn’t prove it, & Americans began to fear the red chase was going too far; restricted 1st amend. Rights. Truman vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Bill, which would’ve let the president arrest and detain suspicious people during an “internal security emergency.” 5. Soviet success of developing nuclear bombs was due to spies, and in 1951, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were tried, convicted, & executed of selling nuclear secrets to the Russians. The Military Seesaw in Korea 1. General MacArthur landed a brilliant invasion behind enemy forces at Inchon on September 15, 1950, and drove the North Koreans back across the 38th parallel, towards China and the Yalu River. – 2. An overconfident MacArthur boasted that he’d “have the boys home by Christmas,” but in November 1950, Chinese “volunteers” flooded across the border and pushed the South Koreans back to the 38th parallel. MacArthur, humiliated, wanted to blockade China and bomb Manchuria, but Truman didn’t want to enlarge the war beyond necessity, but when the angry general began to publicly criticize President Truman and spoke of using atomic weapons, Harry had no choice but to remove him from command on grounds of insubordination. – He also ordered General MacArthur’s Japan Japan--based troops to Korea. – MacArthur returned to cheers while Truman was scorned as a “pig,” an “imbecile,” an appeaser to communist Russia and China, and a “Judas.” In July 1951, truce discussions began but immediately snagged over 15 16 17