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THE MAKING OF THE LAKALAI DICTIONARY
Wolfgang B. Sperlich and Andrew Pawley
13ICAL
Ann Chowning and members of her adoptive family, Lakalai, New Britain, 1962. From left her “brother”
Galia, her “sister’s daughter” Harilau (daughter of Biato and Helu) carrying Voro’s (Galia’s and Biato’s
younger sister) daughter, her “brother-in-law” Gelu, her “sister’s child” (son of Biato and Gelu), and a
“brother’s child” (daughter of Galia). Photo: Ron Duncan and Expedition: Bulletin of the Museum of the
University of Pennsylvania, 1966, Vol 8(1), p.12.
Sixty years ago a team of anthropologists from the University of Pennsylvania compiled the
first draft of a dictionary of Lakalai, an Austronesian language of Papua New Guinea. A
much revised version of the dictionary is finally about to be published. This paper outlines
the rather unusual story of how the Lakalai dictionary was produced and comments on its
strengths and weaknesses. The presentation is in five parts. Described first are the various
stages in the making of the dictionary with a brief discussion of its intended users. Next
comes a consideration of its chief merits followed by a review of some of the problems
encountered in editing the draft Lakalai-English part and creating an English-Lakalai finder
list. Finally the dictionary is showcased as a window into Lakalai culture.
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1. The stages in the making of the dictionary
1.1 Beginnings
The dictionary stems from a project of anthropological research begun in 1954 under the
leadership of Professor Ward H. Goodenough, of the University of Pennsylvania, who
assembled a research team with the aim of investigating the lifeways of the Lakalai people
of northwest New Britain. The team consisted of two male and two female cultural
anthropologists, Goodenough, Charles Valentine, Ann Chowning and Edith Valentine, and a
physical anthropologist, Daris Swindler. The cultural anthropologists worked chiefly in the
coastal villages of Galilo and Rapuri on the Hoskins Peninsula.
Map: Lakalai and neighbouring languages
At that time the Lakalai had had some 30 years of contact with Europeans but retained much
of their traditional social organisation. The team’s primary objective was to investigate all
aspects of Lakalai culture, including social and political organisation, economy, material
culture and language. Goodenough himself was trained in historical and descriptive
linguistics as well as in cultural anthropology. In accord with the American view of
anthropology (cf. Sahlins 2000) as embracing cultural and physical anthropology,
archaeology and linguistics, each of his team of graduate students had received some
training in all four fields. During the 1954 field trip the cultural anthropologists each
recorded lexical information. Goodenough made a phonological analysis and devised an
orthography, and made the initial studies of kinship, later extended by Chowning. Charles
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Valentine investigated religion, psychological characteristics and processes, body parts, and
sex. Edith Valentine focused on childbirth and related practices.
Chowning’s main assignment on the first field trip was to study the role of women in
Lakalai society but in her ethnographic and linguistic enquiries extended beyond this, and
were reflected in her doctoral dissertation entitled ‘Lakalai society’ (Chowning 1958). Fish
names and bird names were chiefly obtained by Chowning, mainly by showing illustrated
handbooks to expert informants. Her principal informant for these domains was Bagou, who
was also her chief informant on art. Terms for numerals and time were mainly gathered by
Goodenough and Chowning and terms for agriculture and fishing by Chowning.
A number of Lakalai terms for fauna, sometimes together with scientific names, were taken
from the wordlist recorded in 1911 by the German Catholic priest Hees (Hees 1915-16).
Many plant names and all plant identifications were provided by A.G. Floyd (1954) of the
Department of Forests, Territory of Papua and New Guinea, in an ethnobotanical report.
In 1955 a first draft of the Lakalai-English lexicon was compiled by Chowning and
Goodenough. From this point on, responsibility for revising and extending the dictionary
fell to Chowning.
1.2 Chowning’s revisions based on further fieldwork 1962 to 1992
Investigations of the Lakalai political system were not undertaken in the 1950s. Chowning’s
1962 field trip was largely devoted to filling this gap. A revised and expanded draft of the
Lakalai-English lexicon was produced in 1968 while Chowning was a Senior Research
Fellow at the Australian National University, and additional materials were incorporated
from her field trips in the 1970s, 80s and early 90s.
1.3 The assembly of the final draft including the English-Lakalai finderlist
In 1991 Chowning and Goodenough made plans to prepare the dictionary for publication.
They revised some introductory sections, but for the next 20 years no further progress was
made. In 2011, alarmed by Chowning’s declining health, Andrew Pawley offered to edit the
Lakalai-English part and to find a computer-savvy linguist to enter the draft in a lexical
database and to create an English-Lakalai reversal. Pawley recommended that Wolfgang
Sperlich, editor of a dictionary of the Niuean language (Sperlich 1997), be engaged to
perform these tasks. Work began in 2012 and by December 2014 a severely edited LakalaiEnglish dictionary and an English-Lakalai finderlist were ready, with additional
introductory material added. The completed work, with Chowning and Goodenough as
authors, was accepted for publication by Asia-Pacific Linguistics in its open-access
downloadable series.
2. Intended users of the dictionary
While one of Chowning’s and Goodenough’s aims was to make the dictionary available to
the Lakalai people, both as learning tool and as a repository of their cultural and linguistic
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heritage, the dictionary was and is of interest to a wider community of Austronesian
anthropologists, linguists, historians and ecologists. From the 1970s on, typescript drafts
were circulated to a number of interested linguists and anthropologists. One unintended but
positive outcome of the long delay in completing the dictionary is that the final product is an
online publication, a notion unknown at the inception of the project in 1954. But few
Lakalai speakers have access to the web and plans are being made to print and deliver some
hard copies to the Lakalai community.
.
3. Merits of the dictionary
We turn now to a brief assessment of the merits and flaws of the work. In its final version
the dictionary is one of the largest of any Oceanic language of western Melanesia. With
some 8,000 head- and sub-headwords – and mirrored in the finder list – the dictionary in A4
format and 12 pt font takes up some 400 pages.
As an on-line publication the document can be searched in many ways and as such provides
a valuable resource for researchers interested in particular topics.
The main merits of the dictionary reflect the specialist skills and interests which the U.
Pennsylvania team, and Chowning in particular, brought to the project. It is rich in
ethnographic detail, providing extensive definitions and additional encyclopaedic
information about terms to do with Lakalai society and technology and perceptions and use
of the natural environment. To take just one cultural domain as an example, the LakalaiEnglish finderlist has the following entries to do with dance and dancing:
(1)
dance, v. tilia, tilalia.
dance, n. (in general) tilaliala (la-).
dance varieties kaie (la-), maroto-la-kaie (la-).
ceremonial dance maroto (la-).
dance originating in Maututu rai (e-).
dance in which the performer displays artificial hands with very swollen fingers
kuku-bobuo (e-).
dance in which objects (weapons, mats) are flourished bilelo (la-), belo.
overture of e-rai dance barasa-la (la-).
first movement of la-maroto and e-rai dances tulugaluga-(la) (la-).
second and final (fast) movement of e-rai dance pulutulutula (la-).
third movement of e-rai dance vuletasola (la-).
fourth movement of e-rai dance virarila (la-).
fifth movement of e-rai dance, which involves gestures of washing ipurupurula
(la-).
finale of e-rai dance tilala (e-).
do a step in e-rai dance kurupesi.
short skirt of banana leaves worn for e-rai dance rehearsals tageigei (la-).
dance of e-rai type malilopati (e-), tamasi (e-).
dance of the e-rai type kasiko (e-).
partner in the dance of that name (or other dance) maroto (e-).
pair off dancing partners for e-maroto: vimaroto.
dance of e-maroto type luso (e-), gogo (e-), lolo (e-).
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dance, do a part of e-kiso ceremonial performance vikisi.
hopping dance step kilihi (la-).
particular dance step pilagi (la-).
gesture in dance with hands extended to the sides rapulapala (la-).
in a dance, run backwards while crouching karoro.
in dancing, dart the hands to the side vituri.
in dancing, make a spearing gesture laba, labalaba.
in dancing, put the hand to the forehead tau-varu.
of the top couple in a dance, move towards the slit-gong boko.
female dance in which the feet are swung forward mokoko (la-).
women's dance step in which they lean over supported by canes tilaho (la-),
taho-sotalo.
women's song and dance performed from house to house after performance
(singing, blowing conch-shell, flourishing mats), done when children are
decorated for a mago ceremony varikiriki (e-), varikirikila (la-).
perform a children's dance before la-mage proper begins tau-pusi la-malala.
last dance held before a feast purororo-la (la-).
moving of top couple down through the line of dancers sululula (la-), sulu.
beat the ground with the feet in dancing soha.
of dancers, crouch and bounce in place, ready to stand and dance forward
lakelakea: lakelakea la-maroto, pou lakelakea.
perform a particular dance movement vito.
dance, flourishing items of wealth, at a peacemaking ceremony hibelobelo,
belobelo.
dance slowly, hands behind the back, around a corpse or dying person riva-robo.
make a gesture in dancing, putting the hand on the small of the back tau-so-tigu.
make a thrusting gesture in dancing vaubi, vaubibi, ubi.
perform a dance around the slit-gong vitapupuru.
perform a dance step raga, ragaraga.
perform a mourning dance riva, rivariva.
perform a hand movement in e-rai: pulo, pulopulo, mapulo.
perform a particular step in e-rai dance goia, gogoia.
perform a particular step in a female dance pagi, pagipagi, paipagi.
formalized mourning dance, sometimes held over the dying
riva (e-).
put hands in front of the hips in dancing tau-a la-lili.
put on decorations for dancing tarotola.
start a dance soha-pusi, soha-pusi la-malala.
take and adorn a child who is not one's own and dance with it vitilia.
dance alongside a performer (an indication of admiration or rejoicing over kin)
osa-robo.
dance provokingly or tauntingly paligelige: tilia paligelige, sakiri.
dance movement buloko (la-).
dance rehearsal kaukatu (e-).
dancers, emerging into the open vigali-tala, vigali-tatala.
dancers who perform on the stern of a racing canoe ilauo (e-).
dancers who move down the line between the other pairs when the music stops
sulu.
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The Lakalai world of magic is also well represented. There are more than 30 terms for
different kinds of magic.
There is extensive coverage of terms for the natural environment, e.g. more than 200 fish
taxa and about 100 tree taxa are identified and about 150 terms for plants other than trees.
For trees and other plants, in particular, information about uses is consistently provided, e.g.
(2)
kaura (la-) a plant [Vitaceae sp.], juice used as medicine for sores.
lailai (la-) a plant [Finschia sp.], rubbed on the teeth in the past to darken them.
It is noteworthy that the chief author of the dictionary is a woman. A survey of the major
dictionaries of Oceanic languages reveals that almost all have been compiled by men. The
question arises, does the gender of the compiler influence the character of a dictionary?
Insofar as a dictionary is a kind of ethnographic record, to ask this question is essentially to
ask whether the gender of the ethnographer influences the character of the ethnographic
description. We think that in the case of the Lakalai dictionary, it does, to some extent –
that Chowning’s interaction with Lakalai women yielded linguistic and cultural data that a
male counterpart would probably not have obtained.
Quantitativeevidenceforthispropositioncanbesoughtbycountingthenumberof
headwordsinthisandotherdictionariesthatrefertogender‐specificactivitiesor
features.Searching for ‘woman/women’ in the Lakalai-English dictionary one finds some
110 tokens, nicely balanced with a similar number for ‘man/men’. (This simple procedure
misses many other terms that are gender-specific but at least provides a basis for
comparison.)The Niuean dictionary that Sperlich edited with the help of a gender-balanced
team of informants also yields such a balanced ratio. However an initial but quite extensive
word list that he assembled with the help of a single male informant for the language of
Namakir of Central Vanuatu, has a dismal ratio of 1: 6 for woman/women : man/men.
The following is a sample of entries for female-focused terms from the English-Lakalai
finder list:
(3)
beaded woman's belt, which holds skirt leaves utugolo (la-).
bear down, of a woman giving birth … raro.
bear twins iboge, la-viboge.
of bride and her companions, to step over the threshold of the groom’s house
sigau
bud; girls and women of a clan, viewed as those who ensure its continued
existence magalu (la-)
the womb of a sterile woman pakuku.
woman’s breech clout of leaves or cloth kapipiri (la-)
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of a woman, wear mourning garb consisting of dry unscented leaves magura
woman…who has died in childbirth; the malevolent spirit of these pigobara (e-)
bundle, esp. woman's head bundle of garden produce or firewood tabala (la-).
bundle containing woman's valuables used both in marriage payments (and
dowry) and for adornment tava-la-leoa (la-).
distribution of food at a menarche feast by the mother of a different girl paha
(la-)
elope with a married woman ovo.
exclamation (of approbation, surprise, affection) addressed to a woman or a girl
o tavile o.
give a feast honoring a new mother as repayment of wealth received for her
marriage hibula
jiggle, of the breasts of a woman running uma, umauma.
jump up and seize a woman (and flee to the bush with her) raga-tavu la-tavile.
kind of magic directed against women kalebele (la-)
make an assignation with a woman in the bush keke, kekeke.
removal of a lazy man’s wife…to give her to a hard worker ilovo (la-).
scarification of women ilolo (la-).
to fish with woman's hand-net lalao, sau (la-), ilalao (la-).
woman's knife of sharpened pearlshell beho (la-).
perform certain types of love magic so that a woman hears the song rurubu,
ruburubu.
masked performance which represents a woman giving birth, and her
attendants pepigo (e-).
the time that women of the bride’s family spend in the groom’s family after the
marriage mata-buli (la-)
woman not yet married who men look admiringly at mata-la-valua (la-)
woman’s ceremonial paraphernalia golugolu (la-)
woman's ornaments and valuables in general totoku (la-).
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woman’s netbag, used for storing cooked taro… (palo (la-)
leaf or leaves worn in woman's skirt gelesiki (la-), holo (la-).
plant [Coleus sp.], leaf worn in woman’s skirt magea (la-).
[Rhipogononum sp.] and [Justica sp.] leaves used for woman's apron barotoroto
(la-).
sexually promiscuous, of a woman mata-bara, mata-gerugeru.
sterile, not bearing children, of a woman… gaga, gagaga, vigaga.
suffer from morning sickness, of a pregnant woman malago.
waters that are taboo to women reki (la-).
Another possible female touch can be seen in the extensive compilation of aromatic plants,
leaves and flowers used in various contexts. Consider the following entries (includes subentries) from the Lakalai-English part:
(4)
biabe (la-) an aromatic plant [Macaranga sp.], worn in woman's skirt.
kamasa (la-) a very aromatic leaf worn in woman's skirt [Aphanamixis sp.] (?).
lubaluba (la-) aromatic wild plant [Cryptocarya sp.], leaves worn in women's skirt.
mali-rumurumu to smell aromatic, with particular reference to woman's aromatic
skirt materials and coconut oil.
meu (la-) an epiphyte [Dendrobium sp.], that grows high in trees, aromatic leaf worn
in armbands.
pede (e-) an aromatic plant [Plectranthus sp.], worn in woman's skirt.
seremu (la-) an aromatic plant, worn at dances.
siriba (la-) a reel of particularly aromatic leaves worn in the front of the skirts of
unmarried girls (the scent is sexually attractive).
ulo2 (la-) an aromatic plant [Rubiaceae sp.], worn in armbands.
Not all aromatic leaves serve decorative or romantic purposes for the Lakalai. Consider the
rather unpleasant example below:
(5)
kimagi (la-) an aromatic ginger, the leaf of which is sent to summon hired killers.
la-lahia-la-kimagi. (see la-lahia-la-gata 'the ginger of the spear').
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4. Creating an English-Lakalai finder list
The original dictionary was bilingual in only one direction: Lakalai headwords with English
definitions. Constructing an English-Lakalai finder list was not simply a matter of reversing
the order of headwords and definitions. Such a reversal yielded a first draft but the next step
was to consider each reversed entry, examine the English definition and choose an
appropriate English headword to represent or index that definition. A second step was to
assemble headwords that belong to a single field of meaning and order these as
subheadwords under a main or thematic headword. That is, the finderlist also serves as a
thematic thesaurus. It turned out that many of the English headwords or subheadwords could
be assigned to two or more thematic entries.
The entry for ‘taro’ in (6) below illustrates the thematic aspect of the finderlist, making it
very useful for cross-linguistic (in this case also ethno-botanic) research. For example the
often complex relationships between languages and dialects in PNG could initially include
investigations of ‘taro’ cognate sets.
(6)
taro, general term for taro [Colocasia esculenta] mavo (la-).
varieties of taro (not identified) bulu (e-), gereare (e-), iriria (e-), kato-te-ave (e-),
kaukauvo (e-), koramomo (e-), lapale (e-), mata-le-keko (e-), melekule (e-), paia
(e-), paia-kakea (e-), pesi (e-), rabaul (e-), sikade (la-), tete (e-), tilala (e-), vela (e-),
verese-la-komo (la-).
variety of taro, red inside kelea (e-).
variety of taro having cream flesh with yellowish streaks kaukavu (la-).
variety of taro ('red butt') buru-magese (e-).
variety of taro with a black stem kopa (e-).
variety of taro with a dark stem uakiri (e-).
variety of taro with bright yellow flesh doi (e-).
variety of taro with cream flesh streaked with yellow matave (e-).
variety of taro with pink flesh bula (e-). liba (e-).
variety of taro with striped flesh vovosi (e-).
varieties of elephant-ear taro [Alocasia macrorrhiza] bureka (e-), amugu (e-),
kaliva (la-), kea (e-), kuro (e-).
inedible wild taro [Colocasia sp.] buleha (la-). verepato (la-).
kind of wild taro, considered poisonous veoveo (la-).
kind of wild taro that grows along streams (?) ula (e-).
purplish variety of taro bake-te-galia (la-).
sweet variety of taro with purple flesh teleleso (e-).
wild elephant-ear taro [Alocasia macrorrhiza], that grows by streams and is
poisonous veveo (la-).
cut a section of the taro 'stick' mata-la-uve (la-).
give taro a rough preliminary peeling sukuli.
give taro the final peeling to make it smooth sulai.
hot taro tululu (e-).
inner skin of taro corm girosi (la-).
lower end of a taro corm bila-la-(mavo) (la-).
newly planted taro after it has sprouted soesobe (la-).
remove all the taro from the garden of someone who died; remove all the taro
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from a garden ubi, ubibi, ububi, ubi la-mavo, ubi-taro.
roll cooked taro with a stone so that it is soft and the pieces stuck together (done
inside the bag called la-tilalo) talo.
sliced taro baked with alternate layers of ground almonds ulalu (la-).
small ill-developed sprouts of taro (buds) kokolu (la-).
small taro, wrapped in leaves, cooked, and pounded kusau (la-).
small taros that develop from suckers galakuku (la-).
whole roasted taro or manioc, typically eaten by women bake (la-).
taro, not growing well bubuko.
taro, grows badly because of worms kolukolu.
taro corm vatu-la-mavo (la-).
taro flower, bud (eaten) koki-la mavo (e-).
taro leaf tava (la-).
taro greens pehe (e-).
taro stem veve-la-mavo (la-).
taro top and stem, planted uve (la-).
to harvest taro ovi, ovovi.
use a vine to cut apart cooked taro that has been mashed together holo la-mavo.
very small taro (la-galakuku) which have coconut cream added and are then
eaten sobi (e-).
Once the finder list was drafted it also served as a valuable aid in disambiguating some of
the definitions in Lakalai-English entries, as well as uncovering issues that would require
further fieldwork in order to be solved. For example a name for a plant or animal taxon is
sometimes applied to other referents, including other plant or animal taxa. Take the name of
a kind of fish, kipalaulu, which is analysable as a compound kipa-la-ulu ‘core of
breadfruit’, the components of which are listed in the Lakalai-English section as below in
(7).
(7)
kind of fish (lit. 'core of breadfruit') kipalaulu (e-).
kipa-la (la-)
1 the core of a breadfruit or soursop;
2 by extension, a term for penis (?).
ulu (la-)
1 breadfruit [Artocarpus incise].
2 by extension, soursop (see la-ulu-la-parau).
e-ulu-haro a breadfruit with light-skinned fruit.
e-ulu-pou a breadfruit with entire leaves [Artocarpus ancisa].
la-ulu-la parau 'European breadfruit': soursop [Anona muricata] (sometimes simply
called la-ulu).
Given all this information the question arises why kipa-la (la-) itself is glossed as ‘core of a
breadfruit’ while the fish name contains the actual word for breadfruit as well. A fieldwork
question would be if kipa-la (la-) by itself might refer to any kind of ‘core’.
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One principled decision made for the Lakalai-English section in this context related to
names for species or singular varieties of flora and fauna: such items were afforded
headword status even if they were clearly related to other common words, as in:
(8)
bake2 (la-) a whole roasted taro or manioc, typically eaten by women.
(9)
bake-te-galia (la-) a purplish variety of taro.
While bake-te-galia (la-) could be considered a sub-entry under (8), it is given headword
status as in (9). One may also refer to the finderlist entries (6) for further clues and find that
bake-te-galia (la-) is likely to be an isolate, hence not a good candidate for being a subentry under bake2 (la-).
Varieties of same-named species are however treated as sub-headwords, as in:
(10)
balele1 (la-)
strangler fig [Ficus sp.].
la-balele-kakea a strangler fig that typically surrounds a breadfruit.
la-balele-la-olu a smaller variety of [Ficus], found on offshore islands (see la-olu).
5. Problems and flaws
Some of the challenges encountered when editing the Lakalai-English entries from the Ms.
were of a kind familiar to all lexicographers, for example


how best to order entries in a language where roots occur with quite productive
derivational prefixes and with compounding?
how to handle homonymy and polysemy? When a Lakalai wordform is given
several different glosses, which glosses represent related and unrelated senses?
Among related glosses, which ones represent distinct sub-senses, to be numbered
separately?
A shortcoming of the original dictionary that we did not attempt to rectify is the lack
parts-of-speech labels for headwords. Except for common nouns, which are identified by the
article they take (la- or e-), the reader is reliant on English definitions and examples to infer
the grammatical category of a word.
Chowning recognised the likelihood that some variant spellings of Lakalai words represent
errors in transcription rather than genuine variants. An example of the last point is in the two
headword entries below:
(11)
ala-pao la-lahia to hold (charmed) ginger projecting from the mouth when going to
fight.
ala-pau-a; ala-papau to hold in the teeth or beak.
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Given the similar spelling and similar glosses one would want to further investigate the
possibility of these items having the same spelling and being polysemous. In the first
instance one looks up pao and pau for further clues but finds nothing that is related.
Lacking further information one has to accept the pao-pau spelling variation.
Although the dictionary contains scientific identifications for most plant taxa, this is not the
case for fauna. This discrepancy reflects the fact that a professional botanist worked with the
U. Pennsylvania team but there were no such specialists for fish, birds, reptiles, insects, etc.
6. The Lakalai dictionary as a window into Lakalai culture
Whether this bi-lingual dictionary is a case of anthropological linguistics (i.e. a linguist
compiling or editing a dictionary of a language of a traditional culture, normally studied by
anthropologists – as is the case for the present editors, Sperlich and Pawley) or linguistic
anthropology (i.e. an anthropologist compiling a dictionary – as is the case for Chowning)
the effect is that the finished dictionary provides a snapshot of Lakalai language and culture
in the 1950s and beyond. A culture that is dominated by the local natural environment which
in turn is imbued with a rich and very detailed belief system that pays homage to both the
joys and difficulties living in this environment. As such we experience the literal magic that
(human) nature provides, be it fragrant leaves that entice human relationships or be it the
ancestral ghosts that roam the gardens and houses.
Henceadictionaryprovidesthebuildingblocksforsuchdiscourse.TheLakalai
dictionaryyieldsasetofsemanticdatathatprovidesawindowforspeakersofEnglish
intotheworldofthespeakersofLakalai,atatimethatbeginsinthe1950s.The
dictionaryhasalreadyprovedavaluableresourceforcomparative‐historicallinguistic
work(e.g.Rossetal.2011)butitsgreatestvalue,bothtotheLakalaicommunityandto
anthropology,isasarecordofLakalaitraditionalcultureandsociety.
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REFERENCES
Chowning, Ann. 1958. Lakalai Society. xvii, 480 pp. PhD thesis, U. Pennsylvania.
Available in microfilm from Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International.
Floyd, A. G. 1954. Final Report on Ethnobotanical Expedition, West Nakanai, New Britain:
July-August, 1954. New Britain Division of Botany, Lae. Stencilled.
Hees, P., 1915-16. Ein Beitrag aus den Sagen und Erzählungen der Nakanai (Neupommern,
Südsee). Anthropos 10:34-64, 11:562-887.
Ross, M., Pawley, A. & Osmond, M. 2011. The lexicon of Proto Oceanic: the culture and
environment of ancestral Oceanic society, Volume 4: Animals, Pacific Linguistics,
Canberra Australia.
Sahlins, M. 2000. Culture in Practice: Selected Essays. Zone Press.
Sperlich, W.B. (ed.) 1997. Tohi Vagahau Niue: Niue Language Dictionary. University of
Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
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