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Public Affairs Qualification Course
Ethical Decision Making
Ethical Decision Making
Everyone will face ethical dilemmas in their
personal and professional lives. As PAOs, the
impact of ethics is often magnified because so
much of what we do is subject to public scrutiny.
By thinking about your ethical code and values,
and using a proven model, you will be in a
stronger position to make ethical decisions that
support your organization's ethical standards.
The practice of public affairs is centered
on three fundamental tenants: truth, trust
and credibility. In a profession that relies
so heavily on institutional and individual
credibility, communication professionals must
have a solid ethical foundation in order to be
effective. Lapses of ethical judgment often
become hot media topics for any organization,
garnering negative publicity and significantly
damaging organizational reputations. This
is even more profound for the U.S. armed
forces, an organization with a historically stellar
professional reputation among the American
public for doing the right thing.
The law dictates what not to do regarding
communication. However, the question that public
affairs practitioners often contemplate is, “what
governs what we should do?” This is the world of
ethics – the discipline of deciphering right from
wrong rather than legal from illegal. The challenge
is that ethics are seldom black and white. Public
affairs leaders often operate in a gray area between
true and false, accurate and “technically” accurate,
and tactical and strategic perspectives.
To be of value to your commander and your
unit, you must have an understanding of ethical
standards and their application in the fields of public
affairs and journalism. In this class, you will explore
the ethical principles that guide public affairs
leaders through effectively solving communication
problems.
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Ethical Decision Making
Definition
Within the Department of Defense, our ethical values
are spelled out in the Joint Ethics Regulation DoD
5500.7-R. Ethics are standards by which one should
act based on values. They are the rules or standards
governing the conduct of a person, organization
or the members of a profession (SECNAVINST
5720.44C, p. 1-2). They are values in action. Ethical
values relate to what is right and wrong and thus take
precedence over non-ethical values when making
ethical decisions.
Values are core beliefs such as duty, honor and
integrity, which motivate attitudes and actions. Not
all values are ethical values. Integrity is an ethical
value. Happiness is not. Department of Defense
employees should carefully consider ethical values
when making decisions as part of official duties.
Any discussion of the professional status of public
affairs professionals must begin with ethics. In fact,
adherence to a code of professional ethics is one
of the distinguishing characteristics of a profession
– regardless of the occupational field. Ethical
issues take on added importance because public
affairs professionals have unprecedented power
in decisions that affect every aspect of our society.
In today’s high tech, global world, information and
influence reach most parts of the world with amazing
speed and ease. The impact of public affairs activities
does not stop at national or cultural boundaries.
promise keeping, responsible citizenship, or pursuit of
excellence.
Ultimately, ethics is the study of right versus wrong.
Ethics reflects a society’s notions about the rightness or
wrongness of an act. To accuse someone of laziness
or incompetence is not to accuse that person of ethical
lapses. However, an accusation of stealing, lying and
cheating does imply a violation of ethical norms. But,
do these types of distinctions and considerations apply
to public affairs? Some would argue that public affairs,
along with civilian public relations, have a negative
connotation as an unethical occupation. Critics have
gone so far as to argue that public affairs practitioners
are inherently in the business of spin, propaganda and
manipulation.
The profession of public affairs must be intrinsically
“good” in order to effectively accomplish its core
mission: facilitate dialogue with the public, promote
understanding of our organizations and build mutually
beneficial relationships with constituencies. Some
would argue that these are not merely ethical - but
noble - pursuits. However, to qualify as such, public
affairs must be practiced with a commitment to social
responsibility and ethics. Public affairs personnel serve
the organization best when they act as the “ethical
conscience” of the organization – viewing issues
from a moral perspective and not simply from a legal
perspective.
So, you must consider what ethical values you bring
to PA based on your experience and education.
Yours might be among those on a list from the Joint
Ethics Regulation that include honesty, integrity,
loyalty, accountability, fairness, caring, respect,
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Ethical Decision Making
Approaches
To apply ethics to any situation, one must investigate
moral questions by looking for underlying ethical
principles and justification for why they are virtuous
in nature. These moral principles are the maxims
that guide our behavior as professionals. Some
of these maxims are the products of philosophical
reasoning or the world’s religions. They have stood
the test of time. Others are more recent attempts
to reflect the rapidly changing situational nature of
21st-century society. All of them represent an effort to
identify universal standards by which activities can be
evaluated with common grounding. two approaches
in moral philosophy that are commonly used in ethical
decision making deontology and utilitarianism.
1. Deontological philosophy
Deontology is derived from the Greek word “deon”
(in English, “duty”). Deontological ethics focuses on
the moral principle involved, rather than basing the
morality of the decision on its projected outcome.
It is also known as “nonconsequentialist” because
is inherently NOT concerned with consequences
and maintains that ethics should be guided by duty
rather than consequences. Many philosophers and
professionals have stated that the deontological
approach is arguably the most exhaustive approach
in ethics. This is primarily due to the underlying
deontological belief that the ethical nature of an
action does not depend on its outcome because
predicting the exact outcome is beyond human
capability or control. How does this underlying
principle apply to public affairs? As a PAO, can you
accurately predict the outcome of communication?
Deontological ethics is epitomized by the statement
“Do the right thing” – as a matter of moral duty. But
how do we determine what the right thing IS? For
deontology, that test is philosopher Immanuel Kant’s
“categorical imperative.” For a decision to be ethical,
it must be universally ethical. What is right for one,
must be right for all. Thus, the concept of universal
duty represents what all rational people would agree
is ethical from any perspective on the issue. The two
primary considerations of the categorical imperative
are the person’s intention and their aptness to
maintain dignity and respect of others.
public relations as it is most concerned with what is
right or wrong as opposed to who benefits the most
in a situation. The inherent fairness of this model
allows communication professionals to consider the
perspectives of multiple stakeholders, develop an
understanding of their values and principles, and
remove organizational bias from the equation. It allows
public affairs professionals to advise leadership on
the right course of action based on moral principle,
rather than self-interest. Ultimately, the public
affairs professional evaluates the ethics of options
INDEPENDENT of what the organization desires,
so that his her role as the “ethical conscience” of an
organization is valued as distinct, expert input for
decision making.
Philosopher Immanuel Kant
Many argue that the deontological model is the
most effective application to public affairs and
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Approaches (continued)
2. Utilitarian philosophy
which, as we’ve discussed – is a difficult venture.
Utilitarianism is based on the concept of utility or the
expected outcome of a decision. The consequences
of a decision are the basis for measuring the moral
worth of an action or activity. Utilitarianism holds
the belief that ethical action should create the
greatest amount of good for the greatest number
of people. Attributed to its best-known proponent
John Stuart Mill, the philosophy states that decisions
and activities should maximize the benefits for the
largest number of people while minimizing any
negative consequences for all others. It advocates
a responsibility to society for the organization, as it
views the organization as a part of society.
The deontological and utilitarian models present
the most effective means of assessing ethical
considerations for public affairs professionals. There
are a host of other religious and philosophical ethical
frameworks that are commonly accepted among
academics and professionals. Yet within the scope
of this lesson, we will not explore them in any depth.
The models that we’ve discussed present a framework
for thinking about ethics and assessing if actions are
consistent with moral norms in a society. However,
in professions such as public affairs, we’re more
concerned with the application of moral norms in
practice – this is applied ethics.
Philosopher John Stuart Mill
Within the public affairs profession, one would
consider all available decision alternatives and
select the one that produces a positive outcome
for the majority. In instances when an organization
acts contrary to the public’s welfare, then the
organization is obligated to reconcile by righting the
wrong caused by the organizational behavior and
coming clean on the issue. PAOs might put this into
practice by releasing information that maximizes
benefits for the greatest number of people (EPR, p.
120). Utilitarianism is considered the most common
approach to ethical decision making in business.
Yet, the philosophy does present some limits to
its usefulness. Its focus on the majority tends to
neglect the impact on the minority. This often
leads to maintaining status quo and resistance to
change. The philosophy also requires public affairs
professionals to accurately predict outcomes in order
to gauge future consequences of their decisions –
Look at a DOD ethical decision-making plan from DOD
5500.07-R, pp. 119-120. Virtually everyone in federal
government service makes job-related decisions. Some
of these decisions may seem more important than
others, but all should be preceded by a consideration of
ethical ramifications. In some cases, the ethical element
of decision-making will go no further than to consciously
acknowledge that there are no significant ethical
ramifications to consider. In other cases, in-depth
ethical analysis is called for in addition to application of
ethics rules.
Decisions made by everyone in government service
should begin by considering ethical ramifications (DOD
5500.07-R, p. 118). In some cases the ethical element
of decision-making will go no further than to consciously
acknowledge that there are no significant ethical
ramifications to consider. In other cases in-depth ethical
analysis is necessary while applying ethics rules. When
a decision necessitates an in-depth ethical analysis,
follow the DOD's ethical decision-making plan.
The following plan for decision-making ensures careful
review of ethical consequences when there are
alternative solutions that seem proper under existing
laws and regulations. DOD employees should consider
incorporating the following plan in official decisionmaking: (DOD 5500.07-R, p. 118)
1. Define the Problem. Proceed from a general
statement of the problem to specific statements of the
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Approaches (continued)
decisions to be made. As you take the following
steps, such as identifying goals and naming
stakeholders, new problems or needed decisions
may become apparent. Be willing to add these to
your problem list as you go.
2. Identify the Goal(s). Proceed from a general
statement of an end result both long term and short
term. Be prepared to add to this list as you take the
following steps. Goals are something to strive toward.
They are statements of the best possible results. The
very best is not always achieved for everyone. Many
problems do not allow for “win/win” outcomes. Be
prepared to fall somewhat short of some goals for the
sake of ethics and other considerations.
3. List Applicable Laws or Regulations. Laws
and regulations are basic constraints within which
official decisions are made. Until all relevant laws
and regulations are considered, ethical decisionmaking is impossible. It is conceivable that an ethical
decision could violate a law or regulation.
4. List the Ethical Values at Stake. Listing the
ethical values at stake can awaken you to problems
and goals that you may not have otherwise
considered. It may alert you to stakeholders you
may not have recognized. Listing the values reminds
you of your commitment to them at a time when the
stress of the problem may cause you to forget.
5. Name All the Stakeholders. A stakeholder is
anyone who is likely to be affected by a decision.
Many stakeholders will be apparent because of
the previous steps you already followed. More will
occur to you as you give the matter a few minutes
of thought. Do not forget to include yourself and the
people who may depend on you for support, both at
work and at home. As you list the stakeholders, try to
note the way your decision could affect them. In other
words, name what is at stake for the stakeholder.
questions, demand proof when appropriate, check your
assumptions.
7. State All Feasible Solutions. By this time, some
feasible solutions will have presented themselves.
Others may be found by sharing the lists and
information you have pulled together and "brain
storming." As you state the feasible solutions, note
which stakeholders could be affected and what might
be gained or lost.
8. Eliminate Unethical Options. There may be
solutions that seem to resolve the problem and reach
the goal but which are clearly unethical. Remember
that short-term solutions are not worth sacrificing our
commitment to ethics. The long-term problems of
unethical solutions will not be worth the short-term
advantages. Eliminate the unethical solutions.
9. Rank Remaining Solutions. Other solutions may
not be clearly unethical but may be questionable. You
may have to rely on intuition or "gut feelings" to weed
out these solutions. Put these possible solutions at the
bottom of your list. Rank the remaining solutions, which
are all ethical ones, in order of how close they bring you
to your goal and solve the problem.
10. Commit To and Implement the Best Ethical
Solution. Commitment and implementation are vital
to the ethical decision-making process. Determining
which solution is the best ethical one is a meaningless
exercise unless implementation of the ethical solution
follows. If the right decision is not implemented, the
door is left wide open for others to implement unethical
solutions.
6. Gather Additional Information. This step is
frequently overlooked. The stress from the problem
urges speedy solutions. However, hasty decisions
usually create problems of their own. Take the
time to gather all necessary information. Ask
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Professional Codes
With an overall sense for DOD's focus on ethics and
its ethical decision-making plan, let's examine other
organizations' codes to see if they align with our
ideas.
Ethical conduct suggests actions are consistent
with moral norms in a society. In professions, the
application of moral values in practice is referred to
as “applied ethics.” Ethics codes identify core values.
Several professional organizations PAs will likely
work with have their own codes of ethics, with much
in common with DOD ethics.
Public Relations Society of America
● With more than 21,000 members, the Public
Relations Society of America is the largest
professional organization of organizational
communication professionals. The PRSA code
of ethics is founded on the following core values
(PRSA):
- Advocacy
- Honesty
- Expertise
- Independence
- Loyalty
- Fairness
The code demands members adhere to the following
guidelines:
- Free flow of information – be honest and
accurate in communication.
- Competition – protect intellectual property
rights.
- Disclosure of information – avoid deceptive
practices.
- Safeguard confidence – protect confidential
information.
- Conflicts of interest – act in the best interest of
the client.
- Enhance the profession – advocate professional
development.
The International Association of Business
Communicators
● The International Association of Business
Communicators Code of Ethics is based on three
different yet interrelated principles of professional
communication, that apply throughout the world:
Ethical Decision Making
professional communication is legal; professional
communication is ethical; professional communication
is in good taste.
The Society of Professional Journalists
● The Society of Professional Journalists Code of
Ethics requires members to seek the truth and report it,
minimize harm, act independently and be accountable.
The SPJ code of ethics identifies the duty of the
journalist as furthering public enlightenment by seeking
truth and providing a fair and comprehensive account
of events and issues. The code requires members to
adhere to the following guidelines of ethical behavior:
- Seek the truth and report it - Journalists should be honest, fair and courageous in gathering, reporting
and interpreting information.
- Minimize harm - Ethical journalists treat sources,
subjects and colleagues as human beings
deserving of respect.
- Act independently - Journalists should be free of
obligation to any interest other than the public’s
right to know.
- Be accountable - Journalists are accountable to
their readers, listeners, viewers and each other.
Visual information ethics considerations
Public affairs has strict guidelines that cover ethical
considerations of photo enhancement spelled out
in DODI 5040.05 pp 1-3. Illustration enhancement
and manipulation rules and regulations are tied in
with mission success and the protection of lives and
property. This depends on official DOD imagery being
complete, timely, and above all, highly accurate.
Ethics in the context of visual information align with
other applications of ethical standards. Specific
considerations unique to visual information apply
to alteration, enhancements, digital compression,
masking, and other techniques. The primary
consideration is to make sure any enhancement does
not misrepresent the subject of the original image
(DODI 5040.02, p. 32). Enhanced images are permitted
when it is clearly and readily apparent from the context
or from the content of the image or accompanying
text that the enhanced image is not intended to be an
accurate representation of an actual event.
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Factors
We’ve briefly looked at ethical considerations in
imagery, and the ethical codes of other organizations.
Now, re-examine the ethical decision-making plan
and identify internal and external factors affecting
decisions. Which elements of the plan do you see
as being internal factors and which do you believe
are external? Can any of the steps overlap internal
Ethical Decision Making
and external? Internal factors affecting decisions
might include: definition of the problem, identification
of the goal, and available information. External factors
affecting decisions could include: applicable laws and
regulations, ethical values at stake, and available
information.
Photo courtesy of www.circleearth.co.uk
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Values and Parties
Primary ethical values specified in the Joint
Ethics Regulation include: honesty, integrity,
loyalty, accountability, fairness, caring, respect,
promise keeping, responsible citizenship, pursuit of
excellence. Parties affected by decisions are known as
stakeholders.
Photo courtesy of www.skillsandethics.org
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Conclusion
As a public affairs officer, your value to your
commander and the organization you represent
is directly tied to your credibility as a professional
communicator. Our profession is founded in truth and
trust. In order to be an effective PAO, you must have
a solid foundation of ethical considerations and, more
importantly, the application of those ethical guidelines
in their communication. Rarely are those issues black
and white. However, with a developed understanding
of the ethical frameworks and guidelines learned
today, you will be well equipped to act as the “ethical
conscience” of your command. Now that you have
completed this lesson you should be prepared to
describe the various ethical standards in journalism and
apply ethics in public affairs.
It is likely you will encounter ethical dilemmas daily
as a working professional. As PAOs, your behavior
and actions – especially what you do on behalf of
your organization – are often subject to intense public
scrutiny. Equipped with a strong sense of ethics and
values, and a proven ethical decision-making plan you
will be in a better position to support your organization
with public communication.
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References and Additional Resources
Joint Ethics Regulation, DOD 5500.7-R, Section 12-400 thru 12-501
SECNAVINST 5720.44C (2012). Department of the Navy Public Affairs Policy and Regulations
Ethical Guidance for Public Relations Practitioners (PRSA). Retrieved from
http://www.prsa.org/AboutPRSA/Ethics/
IABC Code of Ethics for Professional Communicators. Retrieved from http://www.iabc.com/about/code.htm
SPJ Code of Ethics. Retrieved from http://www.spj.org/ethicscode.asp
DODI 5040.02 (2011). Visual Information
Broom, G.M. (2009). Cutlip & Center's Effective Public Relations (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Guth, D. & Marsh, C. (2012). Public Relations: A Values-Driven Approach (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon
Public Relations Society of America. (2008). PRSA Code of Ethics. Retrieved December 10, 2008, from
http://www.prsa.org/aboutUs/ethics/
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