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Botkhane Cave: New Evidences From Nomadic And Semi- Sedentary Communities In The
Central Zagros During The Late Chalcolithic Period and The Bronze Age, Kuhdasht,
Luristan, Iran
Kamal Aldin Niknami1, Mohammad Amin Mirghaderi2, Morteza Garavand2
1
Department of Archaeology, University of Tehran, Iran [email protected]
2
Department of Archaeology, University of Tehran, Iran [email protected]
3
Department of Archaeology, University of Tehran, Iran [email protected]
Abstract
Years of varying degrees of investigation exist about the semi- sedentary communities in near
east and especially central Zagros encompassing ethnology, anthropology and ethno-archeology
studies. All of these studies and researches are providing useful information regarding the
cultural structure of semi-sedentary communities of central Zagros. However, due to the
difficulties in identifying the sites related to this type of livelihood, reconstructing the cultural
structures of semi-sedentary communities is problematic; thus the special strategies in
archeological excavations and surveys are required. Meanwhile, caves and rock shelters are
preserving some evidences of ancient settlements and can enhance our knowledge about the
livelihood patterns and cultural structures of their residences. Identifying these settlements is
evidently easier than finding settlements in open spaces as they incurred less damages than open
spaces’ site. Botkhane cave is one of the instances of this group of settlements which reflects
various aspects of the semi-sedentary communities’ cultural structure in central Zagros.
This cave is located twenty-one kilometer from the southeast of Kuhdasht city and one kilometer
from the east of Damchehr Qaralivand village on the west of Luristan province. Evidences of
settlements from fourth millennium B. C until the historic period have been revealed in this cave
during its organizing project in 2008. Numerous bones’ remains of human, goats, horses, rabbits
etc. have been also observed. Although the cultural materials in this cave have been distracted
and emplaced which made the stratigraphy process impossible, but due to the importance of the
discoveries and the strategic location of the cave, all of the finds have been collected and
documented. The present study aims in introducing the cave’s cultural materials and the remains’
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relative chronology along with an analytical overview about the cave’s function based on the
existent evidences, from the second half of the fourth millennium B.C until the end of Bronze
Age.
KEYWORDS: Semi-Sedentary; Botkhane Cave Of Kuhdasht; Central Zagros; NeoChalcolithic; Middle And Late Bronze Age.
Introduction
Central Zagros as one of the fecund regions in the near east archeology has been the center of the
Iranian and foreigner archeologists during the history. The prehistoric, historic and Islamic
periods’ cultural evolution are strongly reflected in the cultural survival of this region. Its
specific geographical structure (Oberlander, 1965: 12) can be the underlying reason of shaping
various cultures in term of cultural and livelihood structures. In the other word, mountain ranges
of central Zagros have played the major role in developing the livelihood of the intermountain
plains’ residents. On one side, this regions had been the connecting bridge between the lowlands
of Mesopotamia and center of Iran plateau and witnessed different cultures passing by during the
different periods of time which is why it remained the center of attention after Stein survey in
1930s (Stein, 1940) up to the present.
Kuhdasht plain is not an exception, Schmidt first saw this cave during an aerial visit of Kuhdasht
plain in 1934 (Schmidt, 1940); other researchers such as Stein (1940) in 1936 and Goff (1966,
1971, 1980) in 1936 have surveyed Kuhdash plain. Chiyapahn (Stein 1940: 261; Stein 1969: 66)
and Sorkhdom (Schmidt 1938 and Dayson 1973) are among the first excavated sites in
Kuhdasht. The new period of excavation activities commenced in 1960s with the construction of
Shahabad-Meldgard road which is not passed exactly through the city of Kuhdasht. Mahmoud
Aram, as the representative and the inspector of the Archeology Administration of Iran and
Meldgard, visited the road’s path and also Qoralivand (Botkhane) cave, Sorkhdom cmetry,
Abolvafa Tepe and other ancient sites of the region in 1962 (Meldgard et al., 1963). Boluran,
Tarhan and Kuhdasht plains were surveyed in 1963 and 1964 once again and evidences from 4th
millennium B.C to 2nd millennium B.C have been identified (Meldgard et al: 1964; Thrane
1964). Claire Goff surveyed the previously surveyed areas with more coverage in 1963; she
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collected and analyzed numerous ceramic samples from Chiya Zargan, Pahn and Boluran Tepes,
and described the Kashmahur valley and rocks in the Diyali valley in Kuhdasht which are
painted with red ochers (Goff, 1971). Charles Burney surveyed the Sarsarun Mountain in Kuhdasht and identified the ancient sites, he
made speculations in four newly discovered sites in Kuhdasht highlands such as Mirmalas,
Bardaspid, Humian I and II, and the results showed that the rock shelter of Humian dates back to
paleolithic period (Burney, 1960; 1970). Mahmoud Aram visited Sartarhan, Kuhdasht and
Boluran areas in 1962; later in 1969, Mohamad Rahim Saraf initially visited Romeshgan and
Dushe cave and published the results in a report (Saraf, 1969). Hamid Izadpanah visited the
painted caves of Mirmalas and Dishe at the same year (Izadpanah, 1984). Several surveys and
excavations have been conducted after the Iranian Islamic Revolution by Iranian archelogists
(Motamedi, 1989 & 2000; Shishegar, 2005; Moradi, 2007; Abdi, 2010). Ultimately due to the
importance of this cave and its gradual destruction by illegal looters, this cave was organized and
its cultural remains were analyzed in 2008. The present study aims in interpreting the cultural
materials of this cave with an analytical approach from the late 4th millennium B.C to mid-2nd
millennium B.C. Nomadism and Semi-Sedentary life in Central Zagros Since the 19th century, the ethnographic evidences and observations regarding the nomadic
societies in west of Iran are indicating the deep roots of this kind of livelihood in the highlands of
the Zagros (Alden 2015: 996, Hole 1978, Edelberg 1966, Feilberg 1944, Mortensen 1993). The
first evidences related to semi-sedentarization in the west of Iran have been probably found
between 1965 – 1979 through the archeological excavations of the Belgium team under the
supervision of Louis Vanden Berghe and behind the Luristan Mountain (Vanden Berghe, 1973).
According to him, the discovered graves related to fifth and fourth millennium B.C are attributed
to the nomadic societies, an opinion which has been approved by several other archeologists
(Hole 1978, 1979, 1974; Wright, 1978; Alizadeh, 2008). The conducted excavations in 3rd
millennium B.C graves in Damgar Parchine, Varkabud, Kale Nesar presented more evidences
about the nomadic subsistence in central Zagros (Haerinck and Overlaet 2006, 2008; Vanden
Berghe 1975a, 1975b). These graves have been attributed to nomadic societies, due to the lack of
relation with sedentary sites, such as Tepe Giyan in Nahavand plain with numerous graves from
Bronze Age (Ghirschman, 1935). Despite the common opinion about the nomadic societies’
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economic dependence to sedentary societies, Alden, Alizadeh and Sumner are suggesting the
nomads’ crucial role in the formation of Elam union in Fars and Zargros and they believe that it
was the power of nomadic societies which led to the formation of such unions (Alizadeh 2010,
Alden 2009, Sumner 1986). Potts suggests two assumptions for nomadic societies’ presence in
Pishkuh; first he believes that the resemblances between the ceramics in Mesopotamian lowlands
and Khuzestan with the ceramics in highlands can indicate the relation between two regions,
although he does not insist on this assumption (Potts, 2013a: 20), for example, the relation
between central Zagros and Mesopotamia during the Ubaid period is clearly evident based on the
Siahbid, Cheqamaran and Taherabad finds (Weeks et al., 2010). A comprehensive definition
would assist its better understanding, Oxford Dictionary provides a complete definition of
nomadism: A member of a people having no permanent abode, and who travel from place to
place to find fresh pasture for their livestock (Hornby, 1995: 786). Although this definition is not
exclusive to near east, but it seems the most comprehensive available definition and refers to
nomadism as a secondary way of living (Cribb, 1991a; Cribb, 1991b; Edelberg, 1966-67).
Nomads are constantly traveling in certain paths and it makes it difficult to identify their
settlements (Cribb, 1991a; Cribb, 1991b; Edelberg, 1966). However, Frank Hole determines
several features for identifying the semi-sedentary societies’ settlements (Hole, 1978 & 1979),
such as proximity to communicational itineraries, proximity to pastures regardless of permanent
water sources like rovers or arable lands. In fact, their settlements were usually far from
farmlands in order to be able to easily camp and take the herds to graze in pastures without any
interruption in farmers’ works, but close enough to provide the possibility of bartering with
villagers without deterioration of dairy products. According the mentioned features, a semisedentary settlement should have characteristics of a seasonal or temporal settlements such as
thin layers of deposits and temporary architectural remnants that are made with the minimum of
work and time. Discovering artifacts that represent domestic products and remnants indicating
production, preparation and storage of food and other household artifacts (Hole, 1980).
Based on the above-mentioned Hole’s suggestions, identifying such sites is difficult and require
precise archeological surveys and full knowledge of nomads’ traveling routs (Petrie, 2013a:
404). Potts believes that evidences of nomadic life in central Zagros are not significant (Potts,
2013b), he attributes the emergence of such societies to Islamic period and rejects all of the
archeological and ethno-archeological evidences (Potts 2013a, 2013b). However, studying the
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current life of nomads in Zagros and referring to ethno-archeological studies, it is obvious that
nomadism and pastoralism have long been part of the subsistence economy of central Zagros
from the beginning of the domestication of animals and plants (Alden, 2015: 997), but precise
consideration need to be taken while attributing a site or a cemetery to nomadic societies. We
should notice the dual nature of semi-sedentary societies in terms of meaning; nomadism versus
ruralisme, transhumant versus agriculture, highland life versus lowland life (Alden, 1982).
Therefore, it is more convenient to use the term of Transhumant agro-pastoralists instead of
Nomad Farmers or Nomad Pastorals (Petrie 2013b: 450) and then try to reconstruct their
subsistence structure, regarding transhumant agro-pastoralists’ characteristics and dependence to
surrounding environment (Mirqaderi et al., 2013; Abdi, 2003). The present study aims in
drawing a perspective of what occurred in this cave by evaluating its situation and characteristics
along with the discovered cultural materials.
Kuhdasht plain in Late 4th millennium B.C
The excavation in Godin was the base of western Iran’s chronology (Young 1969; Young and
Levin 1974; Young and Smith 1966), yet it seems that despite Kangavar plain and other eastern
Luristan plains, local and nonlocal 4th millennium B.C ceramic traditions can both be observed in
western Luristan(Rothman and Badler, 2011: 91). Thus the chronology of the Chalcolithic period
in Kuhdasht can be studied based on Siahbid, Cheqamaran and Kangavar excavations
(Henrickson 1983; Henrickson 1985; Levine and Young 1986: 48) and the proposed date of the
recent Chalcolithic period in central Zagros is 3600 – 3000 B.C (Henrickson, 1983: 486).
Because of its complexity, a historical period cannot be summarized by a site’s name and
generalized to other regions, therefore, an efficient chronological frame is established for better
understanding the trans-regional cultures as the recent Chalcolithic or LC1-5 (Rothman 2001:341;
Rothman and Badler 2011: 69). Based on this discussion and according to Godin’s excavations,
Godin VI is simultaneous with LC1-5 and its oval shaped building is also simultaneous with
Godin VI:1a,b which is simultaneous with LC5 according to this chronology (Rothman and
Badler, 2011: 70). Beveled rim bowls are one of the LC5 characteristics in central Zagros and a
criteria for chronology. However, regarding the distribution pattern of beveled rim bowls in
Kangavar plain and despite the extension of Uruk culture in western central Zagros and the Great
Khorasan route, we cannot expect their existence in all of the central Zagros’s sites and
especially in the smaller sites (Badler, 2002). Nonetheless, the Mesopotamian cultural elements
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in 4th millennium B.C would become more accentuated as we approach the west of central
Zagros (Rothman and Badler 2011: 91).
The central Zagros subsistence patterns, on one hand, have experienced a variety of structures
during Chalcolithic period (Abdi, 2003). During the mid-Chalcolithic period we are witnessing
the increasing number of sedentary settlements which were probably following the agricultural
and animal husbandry livelihood (Henrickson 1985; Abdi et al 2002). On the other hand, the
number of settlements drastically reduced after the end of the period in central Zagros. Since the
population decline cannot be the real reason for this phenomenon, it can be attributed to the
subsistence’s patterns changing from sedentarization and agricultural to semi- sedentarization
(Rothman and Badler, 2011). Based on the discussed evidences, it is suggested that semisedentarization pattern was developing during Chalcolithic period as a secondary and efficient
subsistence pattern which have influenced the economic-cultural structure of western Iran (Abdi
et al., 2002). The archeological evidences of such societies can be observed in western
IslamAbad plain, Harsin and Sarfirouzabad plains (Niknami and Askarpour 2013; Henrickson
1985; Abdi 2003; Abdi et al 2002; Mortensen 1974). Besides temporary open-space settlements,
caves are also preferable locations in this type of subsistence pattern. Several important sites
have been excavated in Kuhdasht plain, encompassing the 4th millennium period until the end of
the Bronze Age, as Chiyapahn Tepe, that dates back to Chalcolithic period and mid and late
Bronze Age (Stien, 1969: 260). Other sites, according to Goff, are Chiyazargaran and Chiyasiah,
which are Uruk sites dating back to mid and recent Chalcolithic and mid and late Bronze Age
(Goff, 1971: 140).
Kuhdasht Plain in Bronze Age
Vanden Berghe’s excavations in the cemeteries of Damgarparchineh, Varkaboud, Kaleh Nissar
and Bani Sormeh (Vanden Berghe, 1975a; 1975b; 1973: 208, Hearinck and Overlaet 2008 and
2006) revealed the two stages of the early Bronze Age I; the ceramic remnants of these graves
are also comparable with discovered samples in Mesopotamia and coinciding with the second
and third early dynasties (Vanden Berghe, 1968: 56). The excavations in Darvand and Sardant
cemeteries (Vanden Berghe, 1973: 208) have also revealed the remnants of early Bronze Age II
and comparable samples with Akadi and Ur III in Mesopotamia and Khozestan (Carter, 1984: fig
10). Kanji cave’s excavation indicated the evidences from early Bronze Age and probably
coinciding with the second and third dynasties (2600 – 2700 B.C) in Khoramabad plain
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(Emberling et al., 2002: 49). Stein in 1936 (Stein, 1940) and Goff in 1963 (Goff, 1966, 1971,
1980) have surveyed the Bronze Age sites in Kuhdasht and consequently evidences of mid and
late Bronze Age have been discovered through excavations in ChiyaPahn in 1963 by Stein
(Stein, 1940: 261) and Sorkhdom in 1938 by Schmidt (Schmist 1938 and Dayson, 1973). The
discovered evidences of mid and late Bronze Age in Botkhane cave are important as the feature
of the mid and late Bronze Age is sedentarism development and increasing the number and
extension of these type of sites (Henrickson, 2011; 1986; 1984). The chornology of Godin III in
Godin Tepe is adjusted based on the Mesopotamian historical resources and Khozestan plain
cultural sequences, and this period’s ceramics are confirming the cultural relations between these
regions. Thus, Godin III is between the 2600 to 1400 B.C and after the end of Godin IV:1a1 in
2700 B.C (Potts, 2013: 207; Rothman and Badler, 2011). The sixth phase of Godin III
commenced from 2600 to 2300 B.C. the fifth phase of Godin III from 2250 to 2150 B.C and the
fourth phase of Godin III from 2100 to 2000 B.C with after one hundred and Fifty years hiatus
(Henrickson, 1986). The exact period of third phase of Godin III is not precisely identifiable due
to the lack of related evidences. The second phase of Godin III is perhaps the most prominent
phase of this culture, besides the pinnacle of the cultural homogeneity in Zagros, there are
evidences of extensive economic development and the formation of unified political
organizations in central Zagros (Henrickson, 1984; Henrickson, 2011: 210). Although the
excavations in Godin are the bases of mid and late Bronze Age chronology, but it is better to
consider the mid-3rd millennium B.C as the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age due to the lack
of absolute dating of Godin III sequences (Renette, 2016: 52).
Botkhane Cave
Botkhane Cave lying at the latitude of 3702191.991, longitude of 758216.569 and altitude of
1,500 meters above sea level, is located 21 kilometers southeast of the Kuhdasht and inside the
Gardel (or Damcheher) mountain. Damchehr (or Qaralivand) is the closest village to this cave
with 5 kilometers distance (Fig. 1). This cave is on the west of Luristanprovince and south of
Kuhdasht plain and overlooks the plain (Fig. 2). The cave’s entrance with 3 meters width and 5
meters height is toward east and have an extended view (Fig. 3) and is composed based on the
layered surfaces (Fig. 4). Botkhane cave consists of northern, which is more extended, and
southern sections. Length of the cave is about 200 meters and its average width is 20 meters (Fig.
5). The carbonate stalactites and stalagmites in this cave are sometimes a few dozen meters
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length. The great amount of sediments inside the cave is one of its major characteristics which
are narrowing the cave entrance. The height and width of the cave has an upward trend, as at its
highest point where the cave is terminated, the cave ceiling height is about 40 meters. May be the
cave’s appellation can be attributed to the long and rugged limestone stalactites and columns
which are standing as figures and idles (Fig. 6).
The first season of arranging the cave’s situation was proposed by Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts
and Tourism Organization of Luristan province in order to open its entrance. Displacing the
deposits inside the cave during illegal excavations (Fig. 7) and muds and alluvium as the results
of seasonal rainfall and floods have blocked the cave and the accessibility was difficult.
Therefore, the first 50 meters have been excavated without interfering the deposits. The
discovered ceramics are mainly fragments of ceramics inside the soil dug and displaced by
looters. These ceramics, based on their shape and decoration as well as comparison with the
neighboring regions’ ceramics and other parts of Iranian plateau, can be categorized recent
chalcolithic ceramics, Bronze Ages, Neolithic age, Parthian and probably Sassanid periods.
Cultural Materials
Ceramic fragments, metal vessels, broken glass vessels are the major cultural materials
discovered in Botkhane cave. According to the shape, decoration and manufactured techniques
of the ceramics discovered in the cave and comparing them with other samples from central
Zagros, they mostly date back to the late 4th millennium B.C until the middle of the historical
period. However, the present study only convers the late chalcolithic and Bronze Age.
A few number of the discovered ceramics seems to be related to the recent chalcolithic period.
These ceramics are buff ware and orange with gray, orange and buff clay, coated with a thick
layer of clay, there was inorganic materials and chaff inside the ceramics’ clay. These ceramics
are handmade and well baked. All the ceramics are simple and without any pattern, except for
two cases. One of them is coated with red clay and the inside surface is decorated with
fingerprints, the other one has a brown coating and its outside surface is decorated with black
finger prints. The ceramics’ surface color is buff ware, orange and gray with same colors for the
clay. The ceramics’ clay contains fine grained and large sands, and some lime particles are also
rarely used in them. Some of the ceramics have thin clay coating and some of them have a thick,
white clay coating on their surface. Three other ceramics are coated with red clay and only one
of them is beveled rim.
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The Bronze Age ceramics are in buff ware, orange, brown and red colors with the same color for
their clay, which contain sand particles and grits. Some of the ceramics are coated with a thin
layer of clay and in some cases they have a think, white clay coating. The surfaces are painted
with red and black geometrical motifs. Those that have been well baked are compact and robust
while those ceramics with incomplete backing are more fragile. Some of the ceramics are wheel
made and the rest are handmade.
The ceramics discovered in Botkhane cave are decorated with geometrical motifs such as two
lines of horizontal strips, wavy lines, strips on the rims, short diagonal lines and crossed
rhombic, all in black, red and brown on a buff, orange and red background (Fig, 8 & Table, 1). A
considerable volume of bone remnants have been discovered with ceramic fragments during the
first season of organizing the cave and among the displaced soils of the illegal excavations.
These bones were various animal species and also human bones in smaller quantity.
Unfortunately, the original context had been ruined through the illegal excavations. Animal
bones’ remains are mostly from different types such as goat, sheep, horse, donkey, relatively
young cows, deer, turtle and also mostly rabbits which were mostly broken and smashed bones
or teeth (Fig. 9). The teeth usually belonged to human, rabbits, hog, sheep, porcupine, badger and
horse; however, they need to be studied more precisely.
Discussion and Conclusion
Due to the discovered cultural material related to the late 4th millennium B.C to the middle of the
2nd millennium B.C and the previously discussed cultural structure of this cave’s and central
Zagros surrounding, the residents of this area were probably semi-sedentary. Although the bone
remnants need more studying, but they have already revealed a lot of information and clues.
Kuhdasht plain at this period had a number of important sedentary settlements which were in
close relations with this cave (Fig. 10). In fact this cave indicate the continuation of nomadic life
during a course of period that central Zagros was going through complicated social processes
which had happened centuries ago in Mesopotamia. Formation of extended local settlements and
Mesopotamian cultural remains such as beveled rim bowls are revealing the wide spread
interaction between Mesopotamia and the intermountain plains in central Zagros (Algaze, 1993;
Rothman, 2001). However, it seems the function of cultural remains in central Zagros is different
from their similar counterpart in Mesopotamia (Rothman and Badler, 2011). These interactions
had influenced both regions, such as spreading the painted ceramics in Central Zagros during the
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second half of the 4th millennium B.C which was the impact of Mesopotamian (Goff, 1971: 149)
and on the other side, the prevalence of Zagros type ceramics in Mesopotamia was also the
results if this mutual interaction (Rothman and Badler, 2011: 87). According to the one
discovered fragment of beveled rim bowl in Botkhane Cave, the relative dating of the lowest
layer of this cave can be attributed to the late 4th millennium B.C and contemporary with Godin
VI;1 or LC5 (Rothman, 2001: 341). The question is, regarding the context of this piece of
ceramic in the cave’s deposit, how the existence of one piece of beveled rim bowl ceramic can be
interpret? Had this cave been the settlement of people from Mesopotamian lowlands or
Khuzestan? To answer such questions, we need to have a closer and more precise look over the
beleved rim bowl phenomena in central Zagros. The results of studying the beveled rim ceramics
in central Zagros show that unlike other neighboring regions of Mesopotamia, Mesopotamian
people were not utilizing these ceramics in central Zagros (Rothman and Badler 2011; Badler:
2002). Despite the suggestions about the oval shaped building in Godin VI: 1 as an Uruk
construction (Matthews: 2006; Young and Levin 1974), only parts of this building were
influenced by Mesopotamian culture and the local people probably had relations with
Mesopotamia (Rothman and Badler 2011: 113). Regarding the similar finds in Kuhdasht plain,
such an approach is probable; but were the nomads using beveled rim bowls? The answer is in
the extent of beveled rim bowls spread in the intermountain plains of central Zagros which were
partly inhabitant by nomads. In Kangavar plain with a large site like Godin, the beveled rim
ceramics were discovered on the surface of only four sites among the total number of 36 sites of
Godin VI (Young, 2004). It seems that beveled rim bowls as an Uruk cultural feature were not
very prevalence in intermountain plains of central Zagros and only the residences of few
settlements were actually using them. Regarding the large sites in Kuhdasht plain such as
Chiyapahn, Chiya Zargaran and Chiya siah with Uruk cultural materials (Goff, 1971: 140), the
residences of this cave probably has relations with these sites in Kuhdasht. While considering all
of the possible suggestions and hypothesis about the semi-sedentary life in central Zagros, the
current evidences show that this cave was not the settlement of nomad pastorals but transhumant
agro-pastoralists or shepherds during the late 4th millennium B.C who were in direct contact with
large settlements of the plain’s center (Abdi, 2003: 400).
These shepherds were taking the herd to pasture and getting far from their settlements regarding
the number of herds and the available surrounding pastures, such a method is suggested for the
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residences of Botkhane cave during Bronze Age; note that this method is still utilized in the
rural areas of the region (Dahl and Hjort, 1976). Botkhane cave was used as a temporary
settlement during the early Bronze Age, and according to the discovered ceramics was
continuing its function as a temporary settlement during the middle and late Bronze Age. Godin
ceramics of III:5,6 , III:4 , III:2 can be observed among the Bronze Age ceramics. As it has been
already mentioned, one of the prominent features of middle and recent Bronze Age in central
Zagros is its cultural homogeneity and expansion throughout the central Zagros (Henrickson,
1984). Studying the third phase of settlement in Godin and Kangavar valley area have led to
important results about the social, political and economic progresses in terms of settlements and
regional (Henrickson, 2011: 211). Increasing the sedentary agricultural and pastoral villages in
intermountain plains are evidences of the sedentary life expansion in central Zagros; as in
Kangavar plain (Young, 2004), Sarfirouzabad, Kermanshah (Mirwaderi, 2013), Mahidasht
(Levine, 1974) and Kuhdasht (Goff, 1971) we are observing the increasing number of sites at the
center of the plain and close to the prominent water sources, representing the prevalence of
agricultural-based livelihoods patterns in central Zagros in this period (Henrickson, 2011).
Botkhane Cave was still being used during Bronze Age in the described context with the similar
function in the previous period i.e. recent Chalcolithic and remained in close contact with the
sedentary settlements of the center of the plain.
Finally, although our discoveries came from the disturbed layers which made it impossible to
conduct the stratigraphy excavation, but the remnants are evidently proposing the continuity of
transhumant agro-pastoralists pattern in central Zagros. Dependence to villages and sedentary
settlement sites were quite common in this plain during the 4th millennium until the mid-2nd
millennium B.C.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to show their gratitude toward those who helped us during different
processes of this study. we would also like to thank Said Bahramian for providing the maps.
Fig. 1: The Political Location Of The Cities Of Kuhdasht And Rumishgan In Iran And Lorestan.
Fig. 2: The Location Of Botkhane Cave In Central Zagros.
Fig. 3: Botkhane Cave’s Landscape And Sorkhdam Site’s Location From The Cave’s View.
Fig. 4: Botkhane Cave’s Entrance.
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Fig. 6: Calcareous Sediments In The Cave.
Fig. 7: Remnants Of The Illegal Excavations In The Cave.
Fig. 8: Ceramics’ Designs Of Botkhane Cave.
Fig. 9: Bones Remnants Inside The Cave.
Fig. 10: Botkhane Cave And The Main Sites In Kuhdasht Plain;
1. Botkhane Cave; 2. Sorkhdam Lori; 3. Chiyapahn; 4. Chiyazargaran; 5. Chiyasiah.
Table. 1: Comparison Of Discovered Ceramics In Botkhane Cave.
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