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Review Article
DOI: 10.17354/cr/2016/194
Fight-O-Chemicals: An Update on Applications of
Phytochemicals in Health and Disease
Aarathi Shenoy, Neha Sukhthankar, Bhavya Amin, Nithin Bhat
Oral and Maxillofacial Radiologiest, Goa University, Goa, India, Consultant Orthodontist, Goa University, Goa, India, Consultant Prosthodontist, Goa
University, Goa, India, Dental Surgeon, Dental Rendezvous Multispeciality Dental Clinic, Goa, India
Since time immemorial, plants have been used as a source of medicine to treat various human diseases all over the world. Since ancient
times, traditional methods and techniques have been practiced in India, for the maintenance of oral health and prevention of oral diseases.
Unfortunately, this valuable knowledge is at the verge of extinction as it is not being documented adequately. This article is an attempt in
creating ecological awareness about the unexplored benefits of useful chemicals present in plants. Increased knowledge of phytochemicals
coupled with technological advancements will lead to an explosion in the field of research aimed at phytopharmaceuticals and in turn, the
development of new organic drugs with minimal side effects.
Keywords: Herbs, Phytochemicals, Phytodentistry, Phytopharmaceutics, Traditional medicine
INTRODUCTION
Studies carried out by eminent scientists; dietary consultants
and pharmacists have proved that a diet rich in fruits,
vegetables, legumes, whole grains, and nuts is helpful in
maintaining the healthy state of the body.1 Organic diet helps
to prevent many chronic diseases like diabetes, coronary heart
disease, and cancer. This happens by virtue of certain chemicals
present in the plants which according to Greek terminology are
called as phytochemicals (PhtyoGreek wordMeaning plant).2
Phytochemicals by definition are biologically active, naturally
occurring chemical compounds found in plants which
provide health benefits for humans further than attributed
to micronutrients and macronutrients.3 These chemicals are
produced by the plant cells for self-protection against pollution,
UV exposure, stress, and drought. They also help the plants
preserve their aroma, color and flavor.1,3 Results of botanical
studies have isolated approximately 4000 phytochemicals out
of which 150 have been studied extensively and documented
for their varied benefits to mankind.2,4
The history of herbal medicine dates back to early
19th century when therapeutic benefits of alkaloids such
as morphine, strychnine, quinine were discovered.5 This
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prompted many researchers to do extensive research in this
field. But unfortunately, investigations were restricted to
phytochemical and chemotaxonomic properties only which
resulted in the invention of synthetics drugs. Thus, the
era of 20th and early 21st century was marked by chemical
products and synthetic drugs. Medical prescriptions
were flooded with drugs which were easy to administer.
All these events overshadowed phytomedicine. 3,5
However, because of the numerous side effects of these
drugs, the field of phytomedicine is regaining its glory.
Increased interest of major pharmaceutical companies
in herbs, increased number of phytopharmaceuticals
preparations, better results and minimal side effects are
main reasons for this renewal of interest. The aim of this
article is the dissemination of knowledge through proper
documentation of phytochemicals and their applications
in dentistry.
CLASSIFICATION
Table 1 shows classification of phytochemicals.6
Role of phytochemicals in maintaining health
• Phytochemicals stimulate the immune system
• They protect the body from carcinogens
• Phytochemicals scavenge free radicals and thus protect
from oxidative stress4
• Stops the cell cycle of cancerous cells at G0-G1 phase2,4
• Promote apoptosis of damaged cells that may be
precursors to cancer
• Prevent DNA damage and help with DNA repair
mechanisms7
Corresponding Author:
Dr. Aarathi Shenoy, Dental Rendezvous, Shop No. 32, Kamat Plaza, St. Inez, Panaji - 403 001, Goa, India. E-mail: [email protected]
IJSS Case Reports & Reviews | February 2016 | Vol 2 | Issue 9
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Shenoy, et al.: Phytodentistry
Table 1: Classification of phytochemicals6
Primary
Common sugars, amino acids,
proteins, purines and pyrimidines
of nucleic acids, chlorophyll
Secondary
Alkaloids, terpenes, flavonoids,
lignans, plant steroids, curcumines,
saponins, phenolics and glucosides
• Help to regulate hormones, such as estrogen and
insulin.7
Results of research investigating phytochemicals have
proved that phytochemicals may reduce the risk of coronary
heart disease by preventing the oxidation of low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, reducing the synthesis
and/or absorption of cholesterol, normalizing blood
pressure and clotting, and improving arterial elasticity.8,9
Phytochemicals neutralize free radicals, inhibit enzymes
that activate carcinogens, and activate enzymes that detoxify
carcinogens. Phytochemicals have also been promoted
for the prevention and treatment of diabetes, high blood
pressure, and macular degeneration.7,9
Role of Phytochemicals in Prevention and Treatment of
Potentially Malignant and Malignant Disorders of Oral
Cavity
The oral cavity is under persistent abuse from different
types of foods and drinks, deleterious substances like
alcohol, tobacco and its products, microbial infections
along with systemic illness. Since the oral tissues are
delicate, they are more likely to experience cell damage
caused by free radicals and oxidative stress. A balance
between oxidative free radicals and antioxidants is
maintained in the body by oxygen scavengers. In cases
where there is an excess of free radical production, these
scavenging systems are overwhelmed and fail to reduce
the oxidative stress. This causes damage to the cell
membrane phospholipids and cell organelles and is termed
as oxidative damage. Pre-cancer, cancer, and other chronic
diseases are mainly caused as a result of this oxidative
damage.10 Phytochemicals show a synergistic function
when supplemented along with other antioxidants.8 Lower
than optimal levels of serum beta-carotene are seen in
people who smoke cigarettes and consume alcohol which
is further associated with increased risk of oral cancer.
Beta-carotene is found in abundance in yellow and green
colored fruits and vegetables.11 Lycopene is a bright red
pigment found in tomatoes and other red fruits such as
red carrots, watermelons, and papaya. It is one of the
most potent antioxidants has been proved to prevent
carcinogenesis and atherogenesis by protecting critical
biomolecules such as lipids, lipoproteins, and DNA.
It suppresses carcinogen-induced phosphorylation of
regulatory proteins such as p53 and Rb antioncogenes.12
Phenolic phytochemicals form the largest category of
phytochemicals. These include flavonoids, phenolic
38
acids, and polyphenols. The phenolic acid in healthy
state is responsible for increased bile secretion, reducing
blood cholesterol and lipid levels.9 It protects against
oxidative damage and thus prevents cardiovascular
diseases, inflammation, and cancer. Reports of various
studies have documented its antiulcer, antiinflammatory,
antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, antispasmodic
and antidepressant activities.13 Flavonoids are present in
vegetables, fruits and beverages such as tea, coffee, and
fruit drinks. These act by inhibiting xanthine oxidase
and arachidonic acid metabolism. 14 Flavonoids have
been reported to possess varied biological properties like
antioxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxicity, antiinflammatory,
antiallergic as well as antitumor activities. Results of studies
indicate that flavonoids such as luteolin and cathechins
are better antioxidants than the nutrients antioxidants
such as vitamin C, vitamin E, and β-carotene.14,15 The best
property of flavonoids is that it offers unmatched protection
against harmful effects of oxidative stress by the following
mechanisms:15
• Direct radical scavenging: Some flavonoids directly
s c a ve n g e s u p e r o x i d e w h i l e o t h e r s s c a ve n g e
peroxynitrites
• Nitric oxide: Nitric oxide produced by macrophages
reacts with free radicals producing peroxynitrite which
can react with LDL thereby producing irreversible injury
to the cell membrane. Flavonoids scavenge nitric oxide
as well as peroxynitrite thus reducing the amount of
oxidative damage
• Xanthine oxidase: Under ischemic conditions, xanthine
dehydrogenase is changed to xanthine oxidase which
during reperfusion reacts with molecular oxygen
resulting in formation of superoxide free radicals.
Flavonoids scavenge these superoxide molecules thus
resulting in less oxidative injury16
• Leukocyte immobilization: Flavonoids cause a decrease in
the number of immobilized leukocytes, degranulation of
neutrophils and mast cells and provide a protective action
during reperfusion by modulation of receptor-directed
calcium channels in the plasma membrane.17
Results of studies conducted on elderly population in
Zutphen revealed a significant inverse association between
flavonoid intake and myocardial infarction.14 Similarly,
findings from the Seven Countries Study (comparing the
diets of men living in Finland, Italy, Greece, the former
Yugoslavia, Japan, Serbia, the Netherlands, and the United
States) suggested that consumption of flavonoids was
responsible for 25% of the observed difference in mortality
rates in the various countries studied.15,16
Tannins are classified on the basis of their structural
characteristics into gallotannins, ellagitannins, complex
tannins, and condensed tannins. Tannins are found
commonly in fruits such as grapes, blueberry, tea, chocolate,
IJSS Case Reports & Reviews | February 2016 | Vol 2 | Issue 9
Shenoy, et al.: Phytodentistry
legume forages (sorghum, corn) and trees (Acacia). 18
In traditional Asian medicine, tannins have been used
since ages as astringents and as diuretics. Moreover,
they offer anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antioxidant and
hemostatic benefits.18,19 Alkaloids have been employed as
dyes spices, drugs or poisons since centuries. These are
naturally synthesized by animals, plants, bacteria and
fungi. Alkaloids have many pharmacological activities
including analgesic, antihypertensive, antiarrhythmic,
antimalarial and anticancerous.20 Terpenoids have been
available commercially as flavors and fragrances in foods
and cosmetics. These have medicinal properties such
as anticarcinogenic, antimalarial, antiulcer, hepaticidal,
antimicrobial, and diuretic activity.21
Table 2: Summary of all Phytochemicals
Phytochemical
Carotenoids
• Betacarotene
• Lycopene
• Lutein
• Zeaxanthin
Flavonoids
• Quercetin
• Narigin
• Catechin
• Anthocyanins
Phenolic acid
• Ellagic acid
• Resveratrol
Source
Red, orange and
green fruits and
vegetables broccoli,
carrots, tomatoes leafy
greens, sweet potato,
apricots, oranges and
watermelon
Apples, onions,
broccoli, berries; citrus
fruits; green/black tea,
red wine; strawberries,
grapes, wine tea
Green tea, grapes,
wine, berries, citrus
fruits, apples, whole
grains and peanuts
Benefit
• Prevents
carcinogenesis
• Antioxidants
• Immunostimulant
• Prevents
atherogenesis
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tannins
Grapes, blueberry, tea, •
• Gallotannin
chocolate, legumes
•
• Ellagitannin
•
• Complex tannin
•
• Condensed tannin
•
Inositol
Bran from corn, oats, •
• Phytic acid
rice, rye, wheat, nuts, •
soybeans and soy
products
Isoflavones
Soybeans and soy
•
• Daidzein
products (tofu, soy
•
• Genistein
milk, edamame)
•
Alkaloids
Isothiocyanates
Terpenes
• Perillyl alcohol
• Limonene
• Carnosol
Antioxidant
Antimicrobial
Anti‑inflammatory
Antiallergic
Antitumor
Antiulcer
Anti‑inflammatory
Antimicrobial
Antioxidant
Antitumor
Antispasmodic
Antidepressant
Anti‑inflammatory
Antiseptic
Antioxidant
Astringent
Diuretics
Antioxidant
Antitumour
Antitumour
Antioxidant
Regulates level of
hormones
Plant, animal, bacterial • Analgesic
and fungal origin
• Antihypertensive
• Antiarrhythmic
• Antitumour
• Antimalarial
Cruciferous vegetables • Antitumor
(broccoli, cabbage,
• Antioxidant
cauliflower and
• Induce detoxification
Brussels sprouts)
of carcinogens
Cherries, citrus fruit
• Antitumour
peel, rosemary
• Antimalarial
• Hepaticidal
• Antimicrobial
• Diuretic
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CONCLUSION
There are many beneficial phytochemicals contained in the
nature’s basket. Oral physicians should advise the patients
to have a diet rich in green fruits and vegetables or provide
dietary supplements. Though we are well versed with
benefits of systemic administration of phytochemicals,
their topical effects are still unknown. Future research
should be directed towards analyzing the effect of topical
phytochemicals on cells of the oral mucosa.
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How to cite this article: Shenoy A, Sukhthankar N, Amin B, Bhat N. FightO-Chemicals: An Update on Applications of Phytochemicals in Health and
Disease. IJSS Case Reports & Reviews 2016;2(9):37‑40.
Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared.
IJSS Case Reports & Reviews | February 2016 | Vol 2 | Issue 9