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6
Basic Principles
of Learning
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Basic Principles of Learning
Definition of Learning
• Relative permanent change in behavior
brought about through experience or
interactions with the environment
– Not all changes result from learning
– Change in behavior not always immediate
• Years of isolating and studying behavior
produced different principles of learning
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Basic Principles of Learning
Slide 3
Classical Conditioning:
Learning by Association
• Ivan Pavlov in Russia
– Nobel Prize for saliva in digestion
– Reflexive response controlled by arbitrary
stimulus (salivation when attendant approached)
• Association - key element
– First recognized by Aristotle
– Pavlov: classical conditioning was form of
learning through association
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Pavlov’s Experiment
Observation screen
Container of
meat powder
Revolving drum for
recording responses
Device to count
drops of saliva
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Tube for
collection
of saliva
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Pavlov’s Experiment
A
Neutral stimulus
(metronome)
CR (salivation)
Before classical conditioning: initially,
the metronome is a neutral stimulus that
does not elicit the response of salivation
B
UCR
(meat powder)
UCR (salivation)
But the unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) can elicit the unconditioned
response (UCR)
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Slide 6
Neutral stimulus
(metronome)
C
UCR
(meat powder)
UCR (salivation)
Conditioning procedure: during the
classical conditioning procedure, the
neutral stimulus is presented in association
with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to
elicit the unconditioned response (UCR)
D
CS (metronome)
CR (salivation)
Test of conditioning: after classical
conditioning, the neutral stimulus
becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS)
that elicits the conditioned response
(CR) of salivation
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Basic Principles of Learning
Pavlov’s Experiments
• Systematic, effective, precise studies
• Association of two stimuli
• The more frequently the metronome and
food are associated, the more often the
metronome will elicit salivation
• Timing of association is highly important
– Longer time intervals were less effective;
almost no learning occurred
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Slide 7
Pavlov’s Studies: the more often the
metronome was associated in time with meat
powder, the more effective in eliciting saliva
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Number of
drops of
saliva
elicited by
metronome
alone
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5
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
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10
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Number of times metronome and meat powder were presented together
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Slide 8
Basic Principles of Learning
Terminology of Classical Conditioning
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
– Elicits response without learning
• Unconditioned response (UCR)
– Unlearned, inborn response
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)
– Acquires ability to elicit after paired
association with unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response (CR)
– Elicited by conditioned stimulus
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Application of Terminology
to Pavlov’s Experiment
CS
(meat powder)
CR
UCR (Salivation)
UCS
(metronome)
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Basic Principles of Learning
Definition of Classical Conditioning
• Form of learning in which
– CS followed by UCS elicits UCR
– Pairing of CS and UCS allows CS to elicit CR
almost identical or similar to UCR
• Considered learning because
– New behavior acquired
– Old behavior elicited by new stimulus
– Does not depend on behavior of individual
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Slide 11
Basic Principles of Learning
Importance of Classical Conditioning
• Watson and Rayner
– Made classical conditioning famous with
Little Albert experiments
• Learned to fear rats - unethical today
• Watson and Jones
– Counterconditioning: reversing the CR
• Useful in
– Explaining aspects of human health
– Explaining sexual fetishes and arousals
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Slide 12
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Watson and Raynor Study
CS
(rat)
CR
UCR
UCS
(loud noise)
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(fear)
Basic Principles of Learning
Slide 14
Operant Conditioning: Learning from
the Consequences of Your Behavior
• Form of learning
– Consequences of behavior lead to change based
on probability of consequences occurring
• Thorndike and the puzzle box
– Researching animal intelligence
– Law of effect: consequences determine
response occurring in future
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Basic Principles of Learning
Operant Conditioning
• Three types of desirable and undesirable
consequences that influence behavior
– Positive reinforcement
– Negative reinforcement
– Punishment
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Slide 15
Basic Principles of Learning
Positive Reinforcement
• Positive consequences – behavior occurs
more frequently (ie: praise given)
• Uses in teaching
– Hospitalized schizophrenics more normal
behaviors
– Employees within the workplace
• Operant response – changed behavior
becomes more frequent
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Slide 16
Use of Positive Reinforcement Increases
Time Spent With Other Children
Percent of
interaction
spent with
100
80
Adults 60
40
20
0
100
80
Children 60
40
20
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Days
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Basic Principles of Learning
Positive Reinforcement
• Two important issues
– Timing of reinforcer following response
• Delay of reinforcement – the greater the
delay between response and reinforcer, the
slower the learning
– Consistency in delivery of reinforcement
• Schedules of reinforcement
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Basic Principles of Learning
Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcers – learned and inborn
• Primary reinforcement
– Innately reinforcing
– Examples: food, water, warmth, physical activity
• Secondary reinforcement
– Learned through classical conditioning
– Examples: rewards, money, praise
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Slide 20
Primary reinforcer
Secondary reinforcer
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Basic Principles of Learning
Schedules of Positive Reinforcement
• Continuous – reinforcer for every response
• Schedules
– Fixed ratio – reinforcer given after each
specified or fixed number of responses
– Variable ratio – reinforcement after varying
number of responses
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Patterns of Behavior Produced
by Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio
Time
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Variable Ratio
Time
Basic Principles of Learning
Schedules of Positive Reinforcement
• Schedules
– Fixed interval schedule – reinforcement
based on time (ie: every 2 hours)
– Variable interval schedule – reinforcement
after variable amount of time (ie: reinforced
after 1 hour, then after 4 minutes, then after
35 minutes like slot machine gambling)
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Patterns of Behavior Produced
by Reinforcement
Fixed Interval
Time
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Variable Interval
Time
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Basic Principles of Learning
Shaping
• Reinforcing steps toward targeted behavior
or method of successive approximations
• Skinner – Skinner box
– Rat pushes lever to get food after
• Rewarded for steps of nearing, touching,
and pushing on lever
• Used for children and those with
developmental handicaps
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Operant Conditioning
Signal
lights
Slide 26
Speaker
Lever
Pellet
dispenser
To shock
generator
Dispenser
tube
Food cup
Electric grid
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Basic Principles of Learning
Slide 27
Negative Reinforcement
• Something unpleasant, aversive, undesired
is removed by behavior or does not happen
at all
– Not the same as punishment
– Not a bad habit being reinforced
– Very powerful method of reinforcement
• Escape conditioning – negative event stops
• Avoidance conditioning – negative event
avoided
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Slide 28
Basic Principles of Learning
Punishment
• Consequence of behavior is negative
– Behavior has been punished
– Behavior frequency will decrease
– When appropriately used – ethical and valuable
tool for discouraging undesired behavior
• Physical punishment used by society,
parents, and others
– has dangers
– Raises ethical questions
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Basic Principles of Learning
Slide 29
Dangers of Punishment
• Often reinforcing to the punisher
• Often has generalizing effect on the individual
• May lead to a worse problem (learning to dislike
punisher, reacting aggressively towards others)
• Criticism trap – belief that punishment is
ineffective leads to using criticism (criticism
sometimes reinforces negative behavior)
• Punishment may suppress behavior temporarily but
is not long term solution
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Basic Principles of Learning
Slide 30
Guideline for Use of Punishment
• Do not use physical punishment
• Punish inappropriate behavior immediately
• Positively reinforce appropriate behavior
• Clarify what behavior is being punished and
why (separate the person from the behavior)
• Do not mix punishment with rewards
• Do not back down once you begin to punish
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Slide 31
Basic Principles of Learning
Contrasting Classical and Operant
Conditioning
Classical conditioning
involves
– Association between
two stimuli
– Reflexive, involuntary
behaviors
– UCS making behavior
happen
Operant conditioning
involves
– Association between
response and
consequence
– More complicated
voluntary behaviors
– Reinforcing consequence
occurring only if desired
response is given
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Basic Principles of Learning
Stimulus Discrimination and
Generalization
• Stimulus discrimination – deciding
between appropriate and inappropriate
occasions for a response
– Learned by humans and animals
• Stimulus generalization – opposite of
stimulus discrimination
– Similarity of two or more stimuli
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Stimulus Generalization and
Reinforcement of a Pigeon’s Pecking
Mean total responses
300
200
100
0
460
480
500
520
540
560
Wavelength
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600
620
640
Basic Principles of Learning
Extinction: Learning When to Quit
• Extinction
– learned response stops occurring because
original source of learning was removed
• Classical conditioning
– Fear is very difficult to extinguish
– CR extinguished if CS is repeatedly presented
but UCS is no longer paired with it
• Operant conditioning
– Extinction results from change in consequence
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Basic Principles of Learning
Extinction
• Differences between classical conditioning
and operant conditioning
• Operant conditioning
– Early stage extinction leads to frustration
– Partial reinforcement effect: schedule and type
of reinforcement greatly influence extinction
• Fastest extinction - continuous reinforcement
– Response prevention: extinguishes avoidance
responses quickly
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Basic Principles of Learning
Slide 36
Spontaneous Recovery and Disinhibition
• Course of extinction not smooth – learned
response occurs often before extinction
• Spontaneous recovery
– Response reappears during extinction
• Disinhibition
– Presentation of intense, unrelated stimulus can
cause strength of response to return
– Pavlov: no response is unlearned, just inhibited
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Basic Principles of Learning
Slide 37
Theoretical Interpretations of Learning
• Pavlov – Neural connections between brain
areas of learning and responding acquired
• Other psychologists
– Cognition plays central role in learning
• Place learning and cognitive map
• Latent learning
• Insight learning – sudden problem solving
• Learning set – learned to learn insightfully
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Monkeys and Impact of Experience
120
Slide 38
Problems
257-312
201-256
101-200
25-32
17-24
9-16
1-8
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
1
2
3
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Trials
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Basic Principles of Learning
Slide 39
Modeling: Learning by Watching Others
• Bandura – people learn through modeling
– Demonstrates role of cognition in learning
– Cognitive learning occurs by watching before
behavior occurs
• Learn skills
• Use of appropriate behavior in given situation
• Reduce inhibitions
• Learn what behaviors are reinforced
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Slide 40
Basic Principles of Learning
Modeling
• Powerful form of learning
• Vicarious reinforcement – likely to imitate
reinforced behaviors
• Vicarious punishment – likely not to
imitate behaviors that are punished
• High status, attractive, likeable, successful
models more likely imitated
– Concerns about television, movies, other media
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Basic Principles of Learning
Biological Factors in Learning
• Learning influenced several ways
– Physical ability limitations (ie: fish cannot fly)
– Individual differences – (ie: fear inhibitions)
– Process of evolution – useful fears and survival
mechanisms
• Biological preparedness to learn
• Learned taste aversion ( used on humans
and animals)
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Basic Principles of Learning
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The End
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved