Download Peace of Westphalia - AP EUropean history

Peace of Westphalia
The Peace of Westphalia (German: Westfälischer Friede) was a series of peace treaties signed between May
and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Osnabrück
and Münster effectively ending the European wars of religion. These treaties ended the Thirty Years’ War (1618–
1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years’
War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence of
the Dutch Republic.
1 Locations
The Peace of Westphalia established the precedent of
peaces established by diplomatic congress,[4][5] and a new
system of political order in central Europe, later called
Westphalian sovereignty, based upon the concept of coexisting sovereign states. Inter-state aggression was to be
held in check by a balance of power. A norm was established against interference in another state’s domestic
affairs. As European influence spread across the globe,
these Westphalian principles, especially the concept of
sovereign states, became central to international law and
to the prevailing world order.[6]
Both cities strove for more autonomy, aspiring to become
Free Imperial Cities, so they welcomed the neutrality imposed by the peace negotiations, and the prohibition of all
political influence by the warring parties including their
overlords, the prince-bishops.
Peace negotiations between France and the Habsburgs,
provided by the Holy Roman Emperor and the Spanish
King, were started in Cologne in 1641. These negotiations were initially blocked by France.
Cardinal Richelieu of France desired the inclusion of all
its allies, whether sovereign or a state within the Holy Roman Empire.[7] In Hamburg and Lübeck, Sweden and the
The peace negotiations involved a total of 109 delegations
Holy Roman Empire negotiated the Treaty of Hamburg.
representing European powers, including Holy Roman
This was done with the intervention of Richelieu.
Emperor Ferdinand III, Philip IV of Spain, the Kingdom
of France, the Swedish Empire, the Dutch Republic, the The Holy Roman Empire and Sweden declared the prepaPrinces of the Holy Roman Empire and sovereigns of the rations of Cologne and the Treaty of Hamburg to be prefree imperial cities. The treaties that comprised the peace liminaries of an overall peace agreement. This larger
agreement was negotiated in Westphalia, in the neighsettlement were:
bouring cities of Münster and Osnabrück. Both cities
were maintained as neutral and demilitarized zones for
• The Peace of Münster[1] between the Dutch Repub- the negotiations. Münster was, since its re-Catholization
lic and the Kingdom of Spain on 30 January 1648, in 1535, a strictly mono-denominational community. It
housed the Chapter of the Prince-Bishopric of Münster.
ratified in Münster on 15 May 1648; and
Only Roman Catholic worship was permitted. No places
of worship were provided for Calvinists and Lutherans.
• Two complementary treaties both signed on 24 OcOsnabrück was a bidenominational Lutheran and
tober 1648, namely:
Catholic city, with two Lutheran and two Catholic
churches for its mostly Lutheran burghers and exclu• The Treaty of Münster (Instrumentum Pacis sively Lutheran city council and the Catholic Chapter of
Monasteriensis, IPM),[2] between the Holy the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück with pertaining other
Roman Emperor and France and their respec- clergy and also other Catholic inhabitants. In the years
tive allies.
of 1628–1633 Osnabrück had been subjugated by troops
of the Catholic League. The Catholic Prince-Bishop
• The Treaty of Osnabrück (Instrumentum
Franz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg then imposed the
[3]
Pacis Osnabrugensis, IPO), involving the
Counter-Reformation onto the city with many Lutheran
Holy Roman Empire, Sweden and their reburgher families being exiled. While under Swedish
spective allies.
occupation Osnabrücks’s Catholics were not expelled,
but the city severely suffered from Swedish war contriThe treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe, but butions. Therefore, Osnabrück hoped for a great relief
becoming neutralised and demilitarised.
they did create a basis for national self-determination.
Since Lutheran Sweden preferred Osnabrück as a conference venue, its peace negotiations with the Empire, including the allies of both sides, took place in Osnabrück.
The Empire and its opponent France, including the allies of each, as well as the Republic of the Seven United
Netherlands and its opponent Spain (and their respective
1
2
3
allies) negotiated in Münster.[8]
2
Delegations
RESULTS
3 Results
3.1 Internal political boundaries
The peace negotiations had no exact beginning and ending, because the participating total of 109 delegations
never met in a plenary session, but arrived between 1643
and 1646 and left between 1647 and 1649. Between January 1646 and July 1647 probably the largest number of
diplomats were present. Delegations had been sent by
16 European states, sixty-six Imperial States, representing the interests of a total of 140 involved Imperial States,
and 27 interest groups, representing the interests of a variety of a total of 38 groups.[9]
• The French delegation was headed by Henri II
d'Orléans, duc de Longueville and further comprised the diplomats Claude d'Avaux and Abel A simplified map of Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in
1648.
Servien.
• The Swedish delegation was headed by Count Johan Oxenstierna (son of Chancellor Count Axel Oxenstierna) and was assisted by Baron Johan Adler
Salvius.
• The head of the delegation of the Holy Roman
Empire for both cities was Count Maximilian von
Trautmansdorff; in Münster, his aides were Johann
Ludwig von Nassau-Hadamar and Isaak Volmar (a
lawyer); in Osnabrück, his team comprised Johann
Maximilian von Lamberg and Reichshofrat Johann
Krane, a lawyer.
• Philip IV of Spain was represented by a double
delegation. The Spanish delegation was headed by
Historical map
Gaspar de Bracamonte y Guzmán, and notably included the diplomats and writers Diego de Saavedra Fajardo, and Bernardino de Rebolledo. The
North Sea
Burgundian lawyer Antoine Brun represented Philip
as hereditary ruler of the Franche Comté and the
Spanish Netherlands.
4°
6°
N
IA
A
M
ER
PO
ST
ark
um
Ne
A
SA
TI
LU
ER
W
Enns
Wolfsegg
Munich
Laxenburg
OB DER
ENNS
Vocklabruck
UNTER DER ENNS
Stahremberg
Gmunden
Salzburg
Wiener Neustadt
Kempten
ns
tancLindau
e
Kufstein
Berchtesgaden
Partenkirchen
Enns
Bruck
Radstadt
A. OF SALZBURG
Mur
F
Ambras
Judenburg
OF
Oldenburg
Spanish Habsburg
Drave
Klagenfurt
TR
Austrian Habsburg
A
D. OF
CARINTHIA
Marburg
Villach
T
B.
Wettin Ernestine
RI
Lienz
B. OF
BRIXEN
Botzen
46°
Trent
Hohenzollern Franconian
Wettin Albertine
Gratz
Y
C. OF
TYROL
ST
Landeck
Hohenzollern Brandenburg
.O
LBERG
VORAR
Wittelsbach Bavarian
D
gau
Inn
Innsbruck
SWISS
CONFEDERATION
Ecclesiastical
Y
Vienna
HU
Saar
LO
Alt-Ötting
Danube
Co
B. OF
BASEL
Imperial Cities
Wittelsbach Palatinate
Korneuburg
Tulln
Linz
Eferding
Kaufbeuren
La
ke
SUNDGAU
Krems
AR
Memmingen
Holy Roman Empire, 1648
Nikolsburg
Laa
ARCHDUCHY
OF
AUSTRIA
Passau
NG
Biberach
Tuttlingen
Znaim
Thaya
Horn
a
GAU
Rottweil
D. OF
FÜRSTENBERG
Kremsier
Brunn
Budweis
B. OF
FREISING
Augsburg
Zusmarshausen
Isar
OF
B.
M.
BREIS
Freiburg
Iglau
Netolitz
B.OF
PASSAU
ith
Neuburg
Buchenberg
M. OF
MORAVIA
Tabor
Furth
Regensburg
E. OF
BAVARIA
Le
Rain
Rober
D
EL
CH
SF
Ma
DEN
ne
Rhi
BA
RG
BU
SS
ST
RA
e
nub
Da
Herbrech
Teschen
Kelheim
Ulm
Alpirsbach
Eger
er
Wes
EI
IE
R
TR
OF
A.
OF
Konigsbronn
Klattau
Cham
B. OF
REGENSBURG
Eichstädt
Ingolstadt
Kirchheim
Oderberg
Leipnik
Olmutz
Jankau
Amberg
Altdorf
Weissenburg
Alerheim
Pinz
FR
AN
CO CHE
MT
É
in
GE
LIE
B. OF
BAR
INE
lle
se
Mo
D. OF
LORRA
D. OF
Tübingen
Öttingen
Nörd
linge
n
Donauwörth
WÜRTTEMBERG
isse
Sasbach
Nuremberg
Ahausen
Aalen
Gmünd
Ratibor
Troppau
Friedland
Pilsen
Mies
Weiden
Erlangen
M. OF
ANSBACH
Hall
D. OF
Stuttgart
Beuthen
Kosel
Elbe
Kolin
u
bs
Pforzheim
Furth
Schaftersheim
Rothenburg
Wimpfen
Heilbronn
Durlach
Breisach
Vesoul
Mergentheim
Wiesloch
Sins
heim
urg
ppsb
P. OF PFALZ
SULZBACH
A
Neisse
Jagerndorf
Prague
Eger
IL
ES
I
Oppeln
Bunzlau
KINGDOM
OF
BOHEMIA
Glatz
Brandeis
Bamberg
B. OF
BAMBERG
Castell
Öls
Braunau
Hermanitz
Gitschin
lda
Strasburg
Münster
Montbeliard
Phili
M. OF
BAYREUTH
Kaaden
Wartenberg
OF
S
P. OF
BRIEG
Schweidnitz
Hirschberg
r
Ise
Waldstein
Leitmeritz
Mo
P. OF
RCKEN
ZWEIB
Spires
Rastatt
Schlettstadt
Dou
nhei
Man
PALATINATE
Heidelberg
Landau
Weissenburg
Hagenau
Zabern
Wurzburg
MAINZ
m
Frankenthal
Kaiserslauten
SaarbruckenZweibrücken
Joarhimsthal
Breslau
Goldberg
Friedland
Zittau
Tetschen
Aussig
Ossegg
Kulmbach
Kitzingen
Höchst
Worms
Turkheim
Besancon
Schweinfurt
D.
P.
LIEGOF
NI Liegnitz
TZ
Gorlitz
Lobau
Konigstein
VOGTLAND
Coburg
B. OF
WÜRZBURG
A. OF
P. OF
WOHLAU
Steinau
Bautzen
Dresden
Pirna
Klostergrab
Zwickau
SAXONY
Hanau
Kreuznach
SPONHEIM
Ehnheim
Fran
Darmstadt
Ne
Höchst
UPPER LUSATIA
Kötzschenbroda
Meissen
Freiberg
lde Chemnitz
Mu
Rudolstadt
kfurt
Mayence
Veldenz
Diedenhofen
B.
C. OF
ISENBERG
Glogau
Sagan
Wohlau
ONY
Grimma
Rochlitz
Altenburg
Arnstadt
C. OF
SCHWARZBURG
Gelnhausen
C. OF
Luxemburg
FRANCE
Leine
Treves
BERG
Friedberg
FU
OF
Grünberg
Torgau
Leipzig
E. OF SAX
Weimar
Jena
OF
C.
HEN OF
NEN
BER
G
LD
Fulda
Giessen
Kottbus
Düben
Breitenfeld
Merseburg
Erfurt
D.
A
Züllichau
Oder
Krossen
Guben
Halle
Nordhausen
Muhlhausen
Gotha
HERSFELD
Ehrenbreitstein
Lahn
Montmedy
EN-
E
OGN
Wetzlar
ine
P. OF
Walkenried Hohnstein
rra
Fu
Coblenz
ND
S
Cassel We
Wittenberg
ANHA
k
Hersfeld
Virnelburg
LA
-
L.
OF HESSEDARMSTADT
POLAND
Schwiebus
e
Lübben
LTDessau
üb
ec
L. OF lda
HESSE-CASSEL
P. OF
Rh
ER
D. OF KAL
C. OF
WALDECK
Landsberg
Netze
Küstrin
Frankfort
Köpenick Spre
Jüterbog
Halberstadt
Quedlinburg
Dr
Grubenhagen
Marburg
Bonn
vel
G
D. OF
WESTPHALIA
C. OF
MARK
D. OF
BERG
Deutz
Cologne
Limburg
Ha
R
F
O BU
EN
EA C.
ST OF
FR
ISIA
C.
TH
D. OF
JÜLICH
COL
Cambray
Charleroi
Jülich
Aix-la-Chapelle
Liege
Bärwalde
Berlin
Kölln
OF BURG
Magdeburg
A.
DE
AG
Rosslau
M
Goslar
Dortmund
Dusseldorf
A. OF
Mons
Valenciennes
Namur
Finow Canal
Mittelmark
Spandau
Potsdam
Driesen
tel
Wo
Lutter am Barenberg
B. OF
PADERBORN
Greifenhagen
Gartz
Schwedt
Fehrbellin
Brandenburg
but
Stargard
E. OF BRANDENBURG
Rathenow
Altmark
lfen
Neu-Stettin
Wamm
Stettin
Ukermark
Havelberg
Werben
Stendal
r
Wollin
ERUsedom
AN
IA
Brunswick
Hildesheim
Hameln
Detmold
Wittstock
Prignitz
Alle
Celle
Hanover
Rinteln
C. OF
LIPPE
Paderborn
Lipp
Ruhr
Fleurus
Bouillon
48°
LD
O
EV Wesel
ES
us
Louvuin
Neerwinden
NE
Pontarlier
• Brandenburg sent several representatives, including
Vollmar.
CL
e
Me
Mechlin
Vossem
Steenkerque
Seneffe
Vancy
• Various Imperial States of the Holy Roman Empire
also sent delegations.
Em
Arrus
50°
C. OF HOYA
B. OF
MINMinden
DEN
C.
OF
RAVENSBERG
Donitz
e
Dannenberg
Kammin
M
Neu-Brandenburg
Neu-Strelitz
GUSTROW
SCHWERIN
Elb
D. OF
BRUNSWICK
LÜNEBURG
Koslin
Wolgast
PO
Anklam
Gustrow
Schwerin
B. OF KAMMIN
Kolberg
Greifswald
ES
T
Demmin
Wismar
D. OF
MECKLENBURG
Lauenburg
Luneburg
Verden
Osnabrück
Münster
B. OF
MÜNSTER
e
OF NB
UE
LA
N
B. OF VERDE
Lingen
OF
Antwerp
Brussels
H
P.
Artlenburg
Bremen
Meppen
Bentheim
Steinfurt
Stadtlohn
Emmerich
Xanten
Ghent
NIS
Conde
Elsfleth
Wildeshausen
D.
G
UR
Altona
Oldenburg
W
Ribnitz
Rostock
OF
B. BECK
LÜ
Lübeck
Ratzeburg
Hamburg
Stade
A. OF
BREMEN
EA
Eutin
Segeberg
Gluckstadt
Himmelpforten
Neukamp
Stralsund
Heiligenhafen
HOLSTEINGOTTORP
Rendsburg
HOLSTEINGLUCKSTADT
HADELN
Emden
OF K
B.
ÜC
BR
EN
NA
OS
LING
OF
C.
s
Lille
Tournai
• the Venetian envoy Alvise Contarini acted as mediators.
Kiel
Eid
er
Ritzebüttel
Greetsiel
Bruges
SP
A
Nieuport
Dunkirk
Cassel
D. OF
PRUSSIA
Stolp
Bergen
Geldern
Ostend
Mandyck
St. Omer
22°
20°
18°
a
Baltic Se
RUGEN
N
• The papal nuncio in Cologne, Fabio Chigi, and
16°
14°
DENMARK
S
ED D
IT AN
UN ERL
H
T
E
52°
12°
10°
8°
Lech
2°
54°
Swedish from 1648
Krainburg
EN
Württemberg
Save
Hesse-Kassel
Laibach
D. OF
SAVOY
Rovereto
P. OF
PIEDMONT
D. OF
MILAN
VENETIAN
REPUBLIC
Gorz
Gradisca
Trieste
Adriatic Sea
D. OF
CARNIOLA
Neustadtl
0
OTTOMAN
EMPIRE
20
40
60
80
100
Miles
• The Republic of the Seven United Netherlands sent
a delegation of six (including two delegates from the Holy Roman Empire in 1648.
province of Holland (Adriaan Pauw) and Willem
The power taken by Ferdinand III in contravention of the
Ripperda from one of the other provinces;[10] two
Holy Roman Empire’s constitution was stripped and reprovinces were not present).
turned to the rulers of the Imperial States. This recti• Johann Rudolf Wettstein, the mayor of Basel, rep- fication allowed the rulers of the Imperial States to inresented the Swiss Confederacy.
dependently decide their religious worship. Protestants
3.2
Tenets
and Catholics were redefined as equal before the law, and
Calvinism was given legal recognition.[11][12] Independence of the Dutch Republic also provided a safe country
for European Jews.[13]
The Holy See was very displeased at the settlement, with
Pope Innocent X in Zelo Domus Dei reportedly calling it
“null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all time”.[14]
3.2
Tenets
The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia were:
• All parties would recognize the Peace of Augsburg
of 1555, in which each prince would have the right to
determine the religion of his own state, the options
being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism
(the principle of cuius regio, eius religio).[11][12]
• Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were
guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public
during allotted hours and in private at their will.[15]
• General recognition of the exclusive sovereignty of
each party over its lands, people, and agents abroad,
and responsibility for the warlike acts of any of its
citizens or agents. Issuance of unrestricted letters of
marque and reprisal to privateers was forbidden.
There were also territorial adjustments:
• The independence of Switzerland from the Empire
was formally recognized; these territories had enjoyed de facto independence for decades.
• The majority of the Peace’s terms can be attributed
to the work of Cardinal Mazarin, the de facto leader
of France at the time (the king, Louis XIV, being a child). Not surprisingly, France came out
of the war in a far better position than any of
the other participants. France retained the control
of the Bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun near
Lorraine, received the cities of the Décapole in Alsace (but not Strasbourg, the Bishopric of Strasbourg, or Mulhouse) and the city of Pignerol near
the Spanish Duchy of Milan.
• Sweden received an indemnity of five million talers,
used primarily to pay its troops.[16] Sweden further
received Western Pomerania (henceforth Swedish
Pomerania), Wismar, and the Prince-Bishoprics of
Bremen and Verden as hereditary fiefs, thus gaining a seat and vote in the Imperial Diet of the Holy
Roman Empire as well as in the respective circle diets (Kreistag) of the Upper Saxon, Lower Saxon and
Westphalian circles.[17] However, the wording of the
treaties was ambiguous:
3
• Whether or not the city of Bremen was
included in Swedish Bremen-Verden remained disputed. Facing the Swedish
take-over, Bremen had claimed Imperial
immediacy, which was granted by the
emperor and thus separated the city from
the surrounding bishopric with the same
name. Sweden understood that Bremen was nevertheless to be ceded to it,
and started the Swedish-Bremen wars in
1653/54.[18]
• The treaty also delegated the determination of the Swedish-Brandenburgian border in the Duchy of Pomerania to the
parties. At Osnabrück, both Sweden
and Brandenburg had claimed the whole
duchy, which had been under Swedish
control since 1630 despite legal claims of
Brandenburgian succession. While the
parties settled for a border in 1653, the
underlying conflict continued.[19]
• The treaty ruled that the Dukes of Mecklenburg, owing their re-investiture to the
Swedes, cede Wismar and the Mecklenburgian port tolls. While Sweden understood this to include the tolls of all
Mecklenburgian ports, the Mecklenburgian dukes as well as the emperor understood this to refer to Wismar only.[19]
• Wildeshausen, a petty exclave of
Bremen-Verden and fragile basis for
Sweden’s seat in the Westphalian circle
diet, was also claimed by the Bishopric
of Münster.[19]
• Bavaria retained the Palatinate's vote in the Imperial
Council of Electors (which elected the Holy Roman
Emperor), which it had been granted by the ban
on the Elector Palatine Frederick V in 1623. The
Prince Palatine, Frederick’s son, was given a new,
eighth electoral vote.
• The Palatinate was divided between the reestablished Elector Palatine Charles Louis (son and
heir of Frederick V) and Elector-Duke Maximilian
of Bavaria, and thus between the Protestants and
Catholics. Charles Louis obtained the Lower
Palatinate, along the Rhine, while Maximilian kept
the Upper Palatinate, to the north of Bavaria.
• Brandenburg-Prussia (later Prussia) received
Farther Pomerania, and the Bishoprics of
Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Kammin, and Minden.
• The succession to the United Duchies of JülichCleves-Berg, whose last duke had died in 1609, was
clarified. Jülich, Berg, and Ravenstein were given to
the Count Palatine of Neuburg, while Cleves, Mark,
and Ravensberg went to Brandenburg.
4
5
• It was agreed that the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück would alternate between Protestant and
Catholic holders, with the Protestant bishops chosen
from cadets of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg.
• The independence of the city of Bremen was clarified.
• Barriers to trade and commerce erected during the
war were abolished, and “a degree” of free navigation was guaranteed on the Rhine.[20]
3.3
Legacy
China, and a resurgent Russia have begun to recreate
a multipolar political environment.[26][27] Instead of a
traditional balance of power, inter-state aggression may
now be checked by the preponderance of power,[28] a
sharp contrast to the Westphalian principle.
4 See also
• Charter of Liberties
• Concordat of Worms
• Eighty Years’ War
Main article: Westphalian sovereignty
• Freedom of religion
The treaty did not entirely end conflicts arising out of the
Thirty Years’ War. Fighting continued between France
and Spain until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. Nevertheless, it did settle many outstanding European issues of the time. Some of the principles developed at
Westphalia, especially those relating to respecting the
boundaries of sovereign states and non-interference in
their domestic affairs, became central to the world order that developed over the following centuries, and remain in effect today. In several parts of the world, however, sovereign states emerged from what was once imperial territory only after the post-World War II period
of decolonization.[6] More significantly, one of major
principles—the balance of power—was undermined in
the Twentieth century. Referring to the Soviet Union,
Adolf Hitler said: Without Wehrmacht, a “wave would
have swept over Europe that would have taken no care
of the ridiculous British idea of the balance of power in
Europe in all its banality and stupid tradition—once and
for all.”[21] During World War II, the multipolar balance
became bipolar, between the Axis and the Allies, followed by the United States and NATO nations against the
Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact nations during the Cold
War. (1967: 332) His chapter, titled “The New Balance
of Power,” Hans Morgenthau opened with the words:
• History of Sweden, 1648–1700
The destruction of that intellectual and
moral consensus which restrained the struggle
for power for almost three centuries deprived
the balance of power of its vital energy that
made it a living principle of international politics … The most obvious of these structural
changes which impairs the operation of the
balance of power is to be found in the drastic numerical reduction of the players in the
game.”[22]
After the fall of the Soviet Union, power was seen
as unipolar with the United States in absolute
control,[23][24][25] though nuclear proliferation and
the rise of Japan, the European Union, the Middle East,
REFERENCES
• List of treaties
• Peace of Augsburg
• Peace of Münster
• Roger Williams (theologian)
• Thirty Years’ War
• Westphalian sovereignty
5 References
[1] “Original text in Dutch National Archives”.
bank.nationaalarchief.nl.
beeld-
[2] “Digital German text Treaty of Münster”. lwl.org.
[3] “Digital German text Treaty of Osnabrück”. lwl.org.
[4] “Principles of the State System”. Faculty.unlv.edu. Retrieved 2012-09-11.
[5] “Information from city of Münster”. Muenster.de. Retrieved 2012-09-11.
[6] Henry Kissinger (2014). “Introduction and Chpt 1”.
World Order: Reflections on the Character of Nations and
the Course of History. Allen Lane. ISBN 0241004268.
[7] Croxton, Derek (2013). Westphalia: The Last Christian
Peace. Palgrave.
[8] Konrad Repgen, 'Negotiating the Peace of Westphalia: A
Survey with an Examination of the Major Problems’, In:
1648: War and Peace in Europe: 3 vols. (Catalogue of the
26th exhibition of the Council of Europe, on the Peace of
Westphalia), Klaus Bußmann and Heinz Schilling (eds.)
on behalf of the Veranstaltungsgesellschaft 350 Jahre
Westfälischer Friede, Münster and Osnabrück: no publ.,
1998, 'Essay Volume 1: Politics, Religion, Law and Society', pp. 355–372, here pp. 355 seq.
5
[9] Konrad Repgen, 'Negotiating the Peace of Westphalia: A
Survey with an Examination of the Major Problems’, In:
1648: War and Peace in Europe: 3 vols. (Catalogue of the
26th exhibition of the Council of Europe, on the Peace of
Westphalia), Klaus Bußmann and Heinz Schilling (eds.)
on behalf of the Veranstaltungsgesellschaft 350 Jahre
Westfälischer Friede, Münster and Osnabrück: no publ.,
1998, 'Essay Volume 1: Politics, Religion, Law and Society', pp. 355–372, here p. 356.
[10] Sonnino, Paul (30 June 2009). Mazarin’s Quest: The
Congress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde.
Harvard University Press.
[11] Treaty of Münster 1648
• Treaty of Münster Text (Yale University)
• Texts of the Westphalian Treaties (German)
• Peace Of Westphalia – Firmly Plants Protestantism
in Europe
• High Resolution Map of Germany after the Treaty
of Westphalia Dead link
• Peace Treaty of Osnabrück (Full Text)
• Peace Treaty of Münster (Full Text)
[12] Barro, R. J. & McCleary, R. M. “Which Countries have
State Religions?" (PDF). University of Chicago. p. 5.
Retrieved 7 November 2006.
[13] “This day, Mary 15, in Jewish history”. Cleveland Jewish
News.
[14] Larry Jay Diamond; Marc F. Plattner; Philip J.
Costopoulo (2005). World religions and democracy.
[15] Section 28
[16] Böhme, Klaus-R (2001). “Die sicherheitspolitische Lage
Schwedens nach dem Westfälischen Frieden”. In Hacker,
Hans-Joachim. Der Westfälische Frieden von 1648:
Wende in der Geschichte des Ostseeraums (in German).
Kovač. p. 35. ISBN 3-8300-0500-8.
[17] Böhme (2001), p. 36.
[18] Böhme (2001), p. 37.
[19] Böhme (2001), p. 38.
[20] Gross, Leo (1948). “The Peace of Westphalia, 1648–
1948”. American Journal of International Law. 42 (1):
20–41 [p. 25]. doi:10.2307/2193560.
[21] Hitler, Adolf (2004). Domarus, Max, ed. Hitler; Speeches
and Proclamations (PDF). 3. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 2536. ISBN 0-86516-228X.
[22] Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and
Peace, 4th edition, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967,
p 332.
[23] Krauthammer, Charles (1990). “The Unipolar Moment”.
Foreign Affairs. 70/1.
[24] Wohlforth, William (1999). “The Stability of Unipolar
World”. International Security. 24/1.
[25] Lake, David A. (2007). “Escape from the State-ofNature: Authority and Hierarchy in World Politics”. International Security. 32/1.
[26] National Intelligence Council.
(PDF).
6 External links
2025 Global Trends
[27] Yueh, Linda. “America’s place in a multi-polar world”.
BBC.
[28] Leffler, Melvyn P. (1992). A Preponderance of Power.
Stanford University Press.
6
7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
7
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
7.1
Text
• Peace of Westphalia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia?oldid=739674372 Contributors: Paul Drye, Mav, Bryan
Derksen, Tarquin, Jeronimo, -- April, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Dachshund, Christian List, SimonP, Ktsquare, Heron, Leandrod, Infrogmation, Gdarin, Gabbe, Mic, SebastianHelm, Tregoweth, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jebba, Kingturtle, Djmutex, Vzbs34, Andres,
John K, Ruhrjung, Pizza Puzzle, UsagiYojimbo, Frieda, Adam Bishop, Reddi, TwinsFan48, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, Joseaperez,
Wetman, Chl, Jason Potter, DavidA, Josh Cherry, Aliter, RedWolf, Baldhur, Puckly, Ojigiri~enwiki, Lupo, Seth Ilys, Guy Peters, Tom
harrison, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Cantus, Mboverload, Gugilymugily, Hazzamon, Neilc, Andycjp, MarkSweep, Piotrus, Vanished user
1234567890, OwenBlacker, Salvadors, Bonhumm, WpZurp, Klemen Kocjancic, Lacrimosus, Mike Rosoft, Freakofnurture, Rich Farmbrough, Fvdham, Vsmith, Aris Katsaris, Ahkond, Francis Davey, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, MarkS, Bender235, Brian0918,
Edwinstearns, Surachit, Markussep, Dtremenak, JW1805, RussBlau, Friviere, ADM, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Ricky81682, John Quiggin, Sligocki, Wanderingstan, Spangineer, AndreasPraefcke, Ilse@, Mcmillin24, Kusma, Sleigh, Tainter, DanielVonEhren, Mhazard9,
Nuno Tavares, Velho, Corsairstw, Woohookitty, Doctor Boogaloo, Camw, TomTheHand, Ardfern, Zbyszek, RicJac, SDC, Silverpsycho13, Graham87, Qwertyus, Angusmclellan, Tim!, Janosabel, Funnyhat, Ligulem, Isthatyou, Olessi, Matt Deres, Rangek, FlaBot, GünniX, JYOuyang, RexNL, Colonel Mustard, JonathanFreed, Chobot, Thundertje, Jared Preston, DVdm, AllyD, Volunteer Marek, Gdrbot,
Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, Ravenswing, Ec-, RussBot, Tonywiki, Grubber, ML, Kaligon~enwiki, Wiki alf, Howcheng, Isolani, Stijn Calle,
Deucalionite, Lockesdonkey, AjaxSmack, Zzuuzz, Arthur Rubin, Dspradau, Petri Krohn, Curpsbot-unicodify, Garion96, Che829, Roke,
Tom Morris, Yvwv, Attilios, 6SJ7, SmackBot, Britannicus, YellowMonkey, Indyguy, Olorin28, Davewild, Wittylama, Alsandro, ParlorGames, Quidam65, TimBentley, Philosopher, Rex Germanus, Ksenon, JoshNarins, Jprg1966, Baa, Mihai Andrei, Zhinz, Aacool, Zvar,
Lord Eru, NickdelaG, Coffeinfreak, Mystborne, BryanG, DMacks, Curly Turkey, Oneilius, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Esrever, Scientizzle,
J 1982, Marco polo, XBananiax, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, Nbatra, Selphiet, AdultSwim, Dl2000, Fitzwilliam, Provocateur, Courcelles,
Adam sk, Malickfan86, Tawkerbot2, Filiep, Blue-Haired Lawyer, R9tgokunks, N2e, Liist, Hemlock Martinis, Cydebot, Jasperdoomen,
Odie5533, Doug Weller, Ulritz, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Marek69, Carole Jean, Benny45boy, Mdotley, Wmgries, JAnDbot, Charles01, Taksen, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Sodabottle, Chrisweuve, Amitabho, Simba B, Mtd2006, Martynas Patasius, JaGa, MartinBot, Mgee4424,
Sm8900, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, FANSTARbot, JoDonHo, Athaenara, Chrisfow, B****n, Elchimba, Mr Rookles, M-lemot-dit, Joost 99, KGV, Fbarton, Hugo999, VolkovBot, Aciram, Postlebury, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Keeg bob, Elsanaturk, Charlesdrakew, Corvus cornix, Optigan13, AlleborgoBot, SalJyDieBoereKomLei, SieBot, Frans Fowler, BotMultichill, VVVBot, SE7, Lucasbfrbot, Gotipe, Flyer22 Reborn, SilverbackNet, Lightmouse, A E Francis, Jmp98251, Dabomb87, The.helping.people.tick, Francvs, ClueBot,
The Thing That Should Not Be, Rjd0060, Hongthay, RashersTierney, Skäpperöd, P. S. Burton, Piledhigheranddeeper, Jonathanwebster,
Excirial, Bracton, The Red, Meagannnn, RexxS, Mhwilk, Good Olfactory, Bridgetfox, Surtsicna, FactStraight, Addbot, Proofreader77,
Narayansg, Manuel Trujillo Berges, Jtrusso, AkhtaBot, VEB Text, NjardarBot, CarsracBot, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Machahn, Yobot,
Estudiarme, Markcob, FeydHuxtable, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Fc12, AMuseo, 2deseptiembre, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, Capricorn42,
Ryomaandres, Fern 24, Ulf Heinsohn, Ched, AsticeSRL, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Mattis, Joaquin008, Tfjt, Room244,
Filippo83, Lelisamantha, Tetraedycal, Finn Froding, Geogene, Moonraker, Lotje, Vrenator, Turther, Jfmantis, Ripchip Bot, Andreas
Philopater, Jimtaip, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, Exitandlight, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, Git2010, GrindtXX, Wayne Slam, Donner60,
Targaryen, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, Editør, CleggCanada, Helpful Pixie Bot, Quarkgluonsoup, MusikAnimal, Red Rover112, Dakotakisselbach, Billyboy12345678910, Ernio48, Yxesmai12, Lubiesque, Asisman, Dissident93, Supaflymeat, Blaue Max, Animus93, The Collective
of Craig, Sombak'ed, Monochrome Monitor, Library Guy, Vang her, GeorgeRiches, Juggler314, Smoothintellect, Gabriel HM, Gog the
Mild, Samdir1, Fiatnix, Px5x5x5, Wisdom Scholar, KasparBot, Sweepy, BU Rob13, Maxaxax, Colonel Wilhelm Klink, Tyieeb, Syed
kafeel abbas, Muckraker12 and Anonymous: 319
7.2
Images
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Europe_1648_westphal_1884.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Europe_1648_westphal_1884.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: University of Texas Library From “An Historical Atlas Containing a Chronological Series of One
Hundred and Four Maps, at Successive Periods, from the Dawn of History to the Present Day.” by Robert H. Labberton. Sixth Edition.
1884. Original artist: Robert H. Labberton
• File:Europe_green_light.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Europe_green_light.png License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aegean Boy
• File:Europe_map_1648.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Europe_map_1648.PNG License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Made from the public domain map “Central Europe about 1648” from the Historical Atlas by
William R. Shepherd, at the Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection at the University of Texas. Further information from Overy, Richard,
2006, The Times Complete history of the world Times Books ISBN 0007181299, and from this map Original artist: Astrokey44
• File:Waricon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/65/Waricon.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_(Gerard_Terborch_1648).jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
www.geheugenvannederland.nl : Home : Info : Pic Original artist: Gerard ter Borch
• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
7.3
Content license
• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0